Earth’s Crust, Plate Tectonics, and Pangaea
The top layer of the Earth’s surface is called the crust (it lies on top of the plates). Oceanic crust (the thin crust under the oceans) is thinner and denser than continental crust. Crust is constantly being created and destroyed; oceanic crust is more active than continental crust.
Type of Crust | Average Thickness | Average Age | Major Component |
Continental Crust | 20-80 kilometers | 3 billion years | Granite |
Oceanic Crust | 10 kilometers | Generally 70 to 100 million years old | Basalt |
Divergent Plate Movement: Seafloor Spreading
Read MoreMaritime Trade, Exploration, and the Habsburg Empire
Maritime Trade and Exploration
1. Trade with Eastern Europe traversed the Mediterranean, reaching Constantinople and crossing Central Asia. In 1459, the conquest of Constantinople forced the search for new sea routes.
2. African Route: Mariners reached the Azores, then the African coast to the Gulf of Guinea. Indian Route: Vasco da Gama led expeditions to the coast of India and the Spice Islands.
3. Christopher Columbus sought a route to the Spice Islands by sailing west across the Atlantic, avoiding
Read MoreHistorical Periods, Sources, and the Ancien Régime
Periods of History
A. Prehistory (3,500,000 BC – 3,500 BC)
- 1. Stone Age (3,500,000 BC – 7,000 BC)
- Paleolithic (3,500,000 BC – 10,000 BC)
- Neolithic (10,000 BC – 7,500 BC)
- 2. Metal Ages (7,500 BC – 3,500 BC)
- Copper Age (3,500 – 2,500 BC)
- Bronze Age (2,500 – 1,300 BC)
- Iron Age (1,300 – 500 BC)
B. History (3,500 BC – Present day)
- 1. Ancient Age (3,500 BC – 476 AD)
- 2. Middle Ages (476 – 1453/1492)
- 3. Modern Age (1453/1492 – 1789)
- 4. Contemporary Age (1789 – Present day)
Historical Sources
Source: something that gives
Read MoreTertiary Sector: Growth, Characteristics, and Regional Disparities
The Rise of the Tertiary Sector
The tertiary sector encompasses activities providing services to society, such as transportation, tourism, and trade. This sector has experienced significant growth since 1960, now contributing over 60% to both GDP and employment.
Factors Driving Growth
Several factors have fueled the expansion of the tertiary sector:
- Increased living standards leading to higher consumption.
- Mechanization of agriculture, releasing labor for other sectors.
- Industrial evolution, particularly
Spanish Empire in 17th Century: Decline, Society & Economy
The Decline of the Spanish Empire in Europe During the 17th Century
Foreign Policy
Philip III initiated a period of relative peace, signing a peace treaty with England in 1604 and the Twelve Years’ Truce with the Dutch Republic from 1609 to 1621. However, under Philip IV, peace was shattered due to broader European conflicts, particularly the Thirty Years’ War. At the end of the Twelve Years’ Truce, fighting resumed in the Spanish Netherlands, with the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs facing off against
Read MoreImperialism: Economic, Demographic, and Ideological Drivers
Imperialism: Driving Forces
Economic Factors
The crisis of 1873 led to a decline in prices and a rise in protectionism, where countries protected their products by restricting foreign goods through bans or taxes. This spurred the need for new markets outside of this system. European capitalist powers like England, Netherlands, and France needed to invest surplus capital, providing loans and developing infrastructure in other continents. They also sought raw materials, such as silver, oil, rubber,
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