Hydrology and Earth Science Calculation Reference
Hydrological Calculations and Formulas
Lysimeter Evapotranspiration (ET) Calculation
The Lysimeter method calculates Evapotranspiration (ET) based on mass change:
- Total Mass Change: (Initial Mass + Water Added) – (Final Mass + Water Lost) = 10 kg
- Daily Weight Change: 10 kg / 5 days = 2 kg/day
- Convert to Volume: 2 kg/day = 0.002 m³/day (Assuming 1 L = 1 kg and 1 L = 0.001 m³)
- Convert to Depth (m/d): 0.002 m³/day / Area of Bucket = 0.0002 m/day
- Convert to mm/d: 0.0002 m/day × 1000 = 0.2 mm/day
Groundwater
Read MoreGeological Structures and Rock Classifications
Folds: Bending of Rock Layers
Folds are wave-like undulations in rock strata. They are most common in sedimentary rocks.
Origin and Mechanism of Folds
Folds originate primarily due to Compressional Stress. When rocks are pushed together, they shorten and thicken.
Ductile Deformation: Folds form deep within the crust where high temperature and pressure allow rocks to bend without breaking.
Tectonic Forces: Major fold belts (like the Himalayas) originate from the collision of tectonic plates.
Classification
Read MoreEnergy Classification and Natural Production Factors
Energy Classification and Resources
Energy can be classified as primary, secondary, or final energy resources. Primary energy or energy resources are those obtained directly from nature. These are categorized into renewable and non-renewable sources.
Primary Energy Sources
Renewable Energy
Renewable energy sources contain inexhaustible resources. However, they are often not directly applicable to production processes and must be transformed into secondary energy. Examples include:
- Hydro
- Solar
- Wind
- Biomass
- Geothermal
- Tidal
Non-
Read MoreSedimentary Rocks: Detrital, Organic & Chemical Types
Detrital (Mechanical) Origin
Detrital or mechanical origin: mineral particles formed by the mechanical disintegration of other rocks. These particles are transported by agents such as water and accumulate as sand, gravel, blocks, ash and other clastic material.
Sandstone
Sandstone: an intermediate clastic rock formed from mechanically derived granules. It consists of consolidated masses of sand held together by a cement. Sandstone is essentially composed of quartz sand.
Cement (Matrix)
Cement: the material
Read MoreLithological Domains and Geological Formations in Spain
Lithological Domains of Spain
In Spain, four lithological domains are recognized: Siliceous, limestone, clay, and volcanic.
The Clay Domain
In this area, the predominant rocks are clays, marls, and gypsum. It extends through Tertiary depressions and Mediterranean coastal plains. In semiarid areas devoid of vegetation, water streams generate gullies, ravines, or fissures that form vertical walls. Extensive plains formed by the alteration of soft and hard materials give rise to forms of modeling that
Read MoreGeography Fundamentals: Physical and Atmospheric Concepts
Physical vs Human Geography
Physical Geography focuses on natural systems & processes (weather, climate, landforms). Human Geography focuses on culture, population, and cities.
Atmospheric Structure
- Pressure & density decrease with height.
- Temperature pattern by layer:
- Troposphere: $\downarrow$
- Stratosphere: $\uparrow$
- Mesosphere: $\downarrow$
- Thermosphere: $\uparrow$
- Inversion: Temperature increases with height in a layer.
- Temperature $\uparrow$ means molecules move faster.
Maps & Coordinates
- Global