Earthquake Science: Faults, Waves, Measurement, and Hazards
*EARTHQUAKES:
-in plate boundries bc is where most jaults jostle, collide with, or slide past each other. Also in transform fault zones.
-fault: planar breaks and displacement happens
-fault plane: plane which displacement occurs
*stirke-
Slip
*reverse -> <-
*normal <- ->
-creep: if a displacement is gradual,smooth there is no seismic activity or earthquake (aseismic slip)
-earthquake:is displacement is quick, earthquake happens (seismic slip)
elastic rebound: two slides of the fault snap back
Read MoreArchitectural Innovations of the Great Mosque of Córdoba
The Double-Arch System
The innovative system of overlapping arches was designed to provide greater elevation for the prayer hall. A column is placed on top of a pillar, approximately 2 meters high, from which the upper arch springs. This design incorporates Visigothic-style horseshoe arches at the bottom, which act as straps to prevent collapse, a significant improvement over the simple beams or braces used previously.
Horseshoe Arch Characteristics
The horseshoe arch features a camber of one-third
Read MoreGeological Time Scale and Principles of Stratigraphy
Steno’s Fundamental Principles
Nicolas Steno proposed three main principles in stratigraphy:
- The Principle of Original Horizontality of the Strata.
- The Principle of Lateral Continuity of the Strata.
- The Principle of Superposition of the Strata.
Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships
An event or feature that cuts across layers of rock must be younger than the layers it affects.
Principle of Faunal Succession
The fossils within rock layers are from the time the rock was deposited. Therefore, we can recognize
Natural Disaster Phenomena: Storms, Floods, and Landslides
Tornadoes: Formation and Impact
Tornadoes are violent storms that strike as a powerful, rotating mixture of wind and thunderstorm clouds, extending from the clouds to the ground in a funnel shape. They are known to be the most powerful and destructive atmospheric wind systems. They are very common in the USA, particularly across the middle belt extending to the East Coast.
When and How Tornadoes Form
Tornadoes usually occur during the daytime, typically from mid-afternoon until early evening. Their
Read MoreMine Site Restoration and Fossil Fuel Energy Insights
Mine Site Restoration and Revegetation
Primary Goals of Revegetation
The primary goals of revegetation are restoration, erosion reduction, water resource protection, and landscape integration. Establishing a mulch cover in areas affected by mining aims to stabilize the ground immediately and prepare it for the planned conditioning systems.
Limiting Factors in Restoration
Key limiting factors are largely dependent on the revegetation system, the mine’s operating and rebuilding plan, the final resulting
Read MoreConstruction Materials: Stone Properties, Cement Standards, and Concrete Testing
Properties of Natural Stones
Granite: Primitive Plutonic Rock
- Origin: Primitive rock, plutonic origin.
- Composition: Quartz (30–35%), Feldspar (50%), and Mica (15–20%).
- Structure: Multi-phase, polycrystalline structure; homogeneous, small grains.
- Mechanical Properties: High mechanical compressive strength, high density, high degree of compactness.
- Behavior: Almost isotropic behavior; hard to sculpt, easy to polish.
- Vulnerabilities: Problems due to freeze-thaw cycles and changes in the feldspars.