Earth Science Concepts: Driving Forces, Resistivity, and Rotation

Driving Forces in Plate Tectonics

  1. Slab Pull: Descending slab pulls the slab downwards into the mantle.
  2. Mantle Drag: Can be either a driving force or a restricting force, depending on the direction of the mantle movement with respect to the overlying plate.
  3. Ridge Push: Sum of two effects:
    1. Upwelling magma pushes the plates away from the ridge.
    2. Elevated ridges encourage gravitational sliding towards the trenches.
  4. Trench Suction on the Upper Plate: Vertical pull on the descending plate causes a pulling of
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Earth’s Surface Shaping: Weathering and Erosion Processes

External Geological Processes on Earth’s Surface

The effect of external agents on the land surface begins with actions from the atmosphere, which disrupt and alter superficial rocks. This initial breakdown is known as weathering.

Erosion and Transport

Weathered materials rarely remain in their place of origin. Instead, they are moved by erosion and subsequent transport. The primary external geological agents responsible for erosion and transporting the resulting fragments include:

  • Rivers and streams
  • Ocean
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Renewable & Non-Renewable Energy Sources & Mineral Impacts

Wind Energy (Renewable)

Wind energy utilizes wind turbines to generate electricity. It is a type of energy that does not emit pollution during operation. However, potential disadvantages include impacts on dry surface soil, and blades with metal components can produce electromagnetic noise and interference. It is an intermittent power source, dependent on wind availability.

Geothermal Energy (Non-Renewable)

In some locations, geothermal sources flow naturally as hot water (like in spas) or steam. In

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Spain’s Natural Features: Soils, Rivers, Climate

Soils in Spain

Soil types in Spain differ according to the predominant rock type:

  • Siliceous Zone: Formed by rocks such as granite, quartzite, and slate.
  • Limestone Zone: Composed of limestone, where erosion results in a karst landscape.
  • Clay Zone: An area with materials like clay and clay loams.
  • Volcanic Zone: Found in the Canary Islands, composed of volcanic materials.

Rivers of Spain

Cantabrian Watershed

Features numerous short rivers originating in mountains near the coast. They have an abundant and regular

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Understanding Landforms: A Geomorphology Primer

Relief: A set of forms which results in a terrestrial surface. It is a geological structure caused by the internal forces of the Earth and the modeling done on it by external forces and processes: air, water, living things, and so on. Geomorphology is the scientific discipline that studies relief.

Morphostructural Units

These are internal layout forms adopting the relief, resulting from tectonic movements that originate within the Earth. These movements give rise to uplift, subsidence, and displacement

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Global Climate Zones: Equatorial, Tropical, Temperate, and Polar

The Equatorial Climate

The equatorial climate is rainy (wet), and temperatures are uniform throughout the year. The landscape is dominated by the equatorial forest, with lush vegetation and high species diversity.

The Tropical Climate

The tropical climate is warm throughout the year, although there is a dry season in winter and a wet season. The typical landscape is savanna, characterized by the abundance of tall grass, shrubs, and small trees.

Steppe and Desert Climates

Steppe and desert climates are

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