Earth Science Fundamentals: Biomes, Atmosphere, and Cycles
Earth’s Geography and Sustainability
There are seven continents: Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Europe, North America, South America, and Australia.
There are five major oceans: Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean.
Economic Classifications (Income Levels)
- Low-Income Economies (LICs): Less than $1,036 GNI per capita.
- Middle-Income Economies (MICs): $1,036 to $12,535 GNI per capita.
- High-Income Economies (HICs): Greater than $12,535 GNI per capita.
Sustainability refers
Read MoreGlobal Energy Systems and Power Generation Technologies
Energy Resources and Power Engineering Principles
Energy resources in the environment can be divided into renewable and non-renewable.
Classification of Energy Resources
Renewable resources include:
- Solar energy
- Wind energy
- Geothermal energy
- Biomass energy
- Hydropower (water-course energy)
- Waves and tides energy
Non-Renewable sources are organic fuels and nuclear fuels.
- Organic fuels include hard coal, brown coal, peat coal, bituminous shales, petroleum, natural gas, and synthesis gas.
- Nuclear fuels include
Renewable vs Non-Renewable Energy: Key Differences
Here are the answers to the questions regarding energy resources and their classifications.
Difference Between Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy
Renewable energy sources are naturally replenished over short periods and are considered virtually inexhaustible. Examples include solar, wind, and hydropower. They generally have a low environmental impact and produce minimal greenhouse gas emissions.
Non-renewable energy sources are finite and exist in limited quantities, taking millions of years
Post-Mortem Transformations: Mummification and Saponification
Mummification: Post-Mortem Drying
Mummification is the drying of the body through evaporation of water from its tissues, allowing external forms to persist for a long time. The essential factor in this process is the rapid drying of the body, which prevents the development of germs and inhibits ordinary putrefaction. Mummification can be natural or artificial.
Natural mummification begins in the exposed parts of the body: face, hands, and feet, later spreading to the rest of the body. These parts
Read MoreGeological Time Scale, Dating Methods, and Earth History
Geological Time Periods and Key Events
Paleozoic Era
- Cambrian: Marine invertebrates with external skeletons.
- Ordovician: First vertebrates appear.
- Silurian: First jawed fish; first land plants.
- Devonian: First amphibians.
- Carboniferous: Forests of giant ferns; first reptiles.
- Permian: Pangaea forms. The climate became very dry toward the end, leading to the greatest mass extinction event.
Mesozoic Era
- Triassic: First dinosaurs; first mammals.
- Jurassic: Gymnosperm plants dominate; first birds appear.
- Cretaceous:
Mineral Properties and the Complete Rock Cycle Explained
Mineral Properties and Formation
Origin of Minerals
The origin of minerals can be:
- Within a mass of molten rock (magma), such as feldspar or olivine.
- Within solid rocks under high pressures and temperatures, such as calcite.
Properties of Minerals
- Color
- The type of light a mineral reflects when illuminated.
- Luster (Brightness)
- The way a mineral reflects light (e.g., metallic, glassy, dull).
- Hardness
- The resistance of a mineral to being scratched.
- Streak (Color of the Line)
- The color of the dust that occurs when