Earth’s Structure, Layers, and Plate Tectonics

Hutton and Geological Time

It seemed that no relief was unchanged. Hutton inferred this by observing river sediments. These processes were also used to infer millions of years of geological time.

The Rock Cycle

Sedimentary rocks are transformed with sediment and geological agents.

  • Land surface: Weathering and transformation into sediments.
  • Inside the crust: Subjected to high temperatures, they become rock.

Modifications Inside the Earth’s Crust

Changes in materials:

Pressure

The pressure increases rapidly

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Earth’s Crust: Minerals, Rocks, and Geological Processes

Earth’s Crust: Minerals and Rocks

Relief refers to the surface irregularities of the Earth’s crust.

  • Land Relief: Above sea level.
  • Submerged Relief: Extended under sea level.

Minerals: Composition and Characteristics

Minerals are chemical elements or compounds formed by natural processes, with the following characteristics:

  • They are solid.
  • They have a fixed chemical composition.
  • They originate from natural processes.
  • They consist of crystalline material.

Mineraloids consist of amorphous material whose atoms

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Understanding Pressure and Atmospheric Phenomena

Concepts

Pressure: Force acting on a unit area. The SI unit of pressure is the Newton per square meter (N/m²), which is called the Pascal (Pa).

Pascal: Pressure exerted by a force of one Newton on a surface area of one square meter.

Hydrostatic Pressure: Pressure originating inside a liquid under its own weight.

Hydraulic Press: A mechanism consisting of two cylinders of different sections, connected by a tube containing a liquid that reaches the same height in both. These cylinders are closed by different-

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Geothermal Energy and Geological Phenomena

What is Geothermal Energy?

  • Geothermal energy is the Earth’s internal heat.
  • It produces phenomena such as:
    • Movement of the continents
    • Volcanoes
    • Earthquakes
    • The origin of mountain ranges and ridges
    • The formation of some rocks and their deformation

Where Does the Heat Inside the Earth Come From?

  • The impact of various stellar bodies colliding with the planet during its formation.
  • Radiation emitted by the decay of different radioactive elements present on Earth, such as Uranium, Thorium, and Potassium.

What Temperature

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Wastewater Drainage Systems: Design and Types

Layout of Gravity Sewer Systems

The systematic arrangement of gravity sewers must be performed to drain wastewater (WW) and concentrate it at the lowest point, the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). The following must be taken into account:

  • Terrain configuration
  • Type of built-up area
  • Recipient disposition
  • Other eventual conditions

Generally, sewers are designed to drain wastewater into the WWTP in the most optimal way.

  1. Radial System: Tends to be applied for the drainage of closed hollow basins without
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Understanding Erosion, Transportation, and Sedimentation

Erosion, Transportation, and Sedimentation

1. Definitions:

  • Erosion: The process of dislodging and moving material resulting from the weathering of rocks by wind, water, waves, and ice.
  • Transportation: The movement of eroded materials to other locations.
  • Sedimentation: The deposition of transported materials by agents of erosion.

2. How are Water Gullies Formed?

Water gullies form with rain or snowmelt that infiltrates into the ground, leading to runoff and the formation of gullies and fairy chimneys.

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