Fluid Dynamics, Colloids, and Powder Characterization
Newtonian Flow and Viscosity Principles
Newtonian fluids exhibit a linear relationship between shear stress ($\tau$) and shear rate ($\gamma$), following Newton’s law of viscosity:
$$\tau = \eta \cdot \gamma$$
Characteristics of Newtonian Fluids
- Constant Viscosity: Viscosity ($\eta$) remains unchanged regardless of the shear rate.
- Linear Relationship: Shear stress and shear rate have a direct, linear relationship.
Examples of Newtonian Fluids
- Water
- Gases
- Simple oils
Non-Newtonian Flow Behavior
Non-Newtonian
Read MoreClimatology of the Iberian Peninsula: Types and Characteristics
Key Parameters for Climate Analysis
Temperature Metrics
- Minimum recorded temperature and month of registration.
- Temperatures below zero (Winter conditions, leading to rain or snow).
- Maximum recorded temperature and month of registration.
- Thermal oscillation (amplitude): Maximum Mean Temperature (TM) minus Minimum Mean Temperature (Tm).
- Seasons definition: Summer (temperatures higher than 25 °C); Winter (temperatures lower than 0 °C).
Rainfall and Precipitation
- Total annual precipitation (in millimeters,
Global Environmental Challenges: Pollution, Resources, and Biodiversity Loss
Environmental Impacts of Resource Use
Living Resources and Their Exploitation
Livestock and Intensive Farming Impacts
Intensive livestock farming presents major environmental problems, including the use of treated feed, reduction in biodiversity, and significant pollution caused by slurry (manure and excrements).
Marine Resources and Fishing Challenges
Environmental problems related to fishing include:
- Fishing overexploitation.
- Use of non-selective nets and drag fishing techniques.
- Impacts from climate
Spain’s Physical Geography: Landforms and Geology
Spain’s Geographical Overview
Spain is a medium-sized European country, covering 505,990 km². Its territory comprises a mainland (97.55% of the surface), the Balearic Islands (0.99%), the Canary Islands (1.45%), and the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla (0.1%).
This area exhibits significant natural diversity, characterized by a variety of terrain and climatic contrasts, as well as human diversity, reflected in an unequal distribution of wealth influenced by natural conditions, leading to diverse
Read MoreEssential Weather & Climate Terminology
Understanding Weather and Climate Basics
- Weather:
- The state of the atmosphere of a place at a particular time. It is characterized by its variability, but determined by direct observations.
- Meteorology:
- The science of weather.
- Climate:
- The average state of the atmosphere of a place. This state is caused by the usual succession of weather types at a location throughout the year.
- Climatology:
- The science of climate.
Geographical and Atmospheric Influences
- Solana:
- It refers to the sunny slopes of a mountain or
Wood Fundamentals: Structure, Varieties, and Manufacturing
Wood: A Fundamental Natural Resource
Wood is a raw material of plant origin, consisting of the woody stems (trunks) of trees and shrubs. Its structure is primarily composed of cellulose fibers, a substance that forms the structural support for plants, and lignin, which provides stiffness and hardness.
Anatomy of a Tree Trunk (Inside Out)
- Bark: The outermost protective layer.
- Vascular Cambium: A thin layer responsible for growth, producing new wood and bark.
- Sapwood (Alburnum): The living, outer wood