Evolution and Classification of Materials
History and Evolution of Materials
Stone Age
- Paleolithic: Discovery of fire
- Neolithic: Development of pottery
Age of Materials
- Copper Age: Metallurgy of copper, silver, and gold
- Bronze Age: Copper-tin alloys, improved copper properties
- Iron Age: Discovery of steel (cast iron with carbon), discovery of glass
New Materials
- Construction: Wood, concrete (20th century)
- Metal: 18th century – Necker and soft iron, steel, foundry. 19th century – aluminum. 20th century – titanium.
- Polymer: 19th century – rubber, 20th
Raw Materials & Industrial Processes: A Comprehensive Overview
Vocabulary of Raw Materials and Industrial Processes
Raw Materials
Raw materials are the resources used to produce finished or semi-finished products. They can be of organic origin (derived from livestock farming) or mineral origin (extracted from the earth).
Mineral Resources
Mineral resources are all known or undiscovered mineral deposits that can be exploited with current techniques or potentially in the future.
Mineral Reserves
Mineral reserves are known resources that can be exploited with current
Read MoreWater and Biogeographic Diversity in Spain
Unit 3: Water and Biogeographic Diversity in Spain
1. Water Diversity
The wide variety of weather and climate in Spain results from the effects of various geographical and thermodynamic factors.
1.1. Influencing Factors
Physical Factors – Climate:
The water of rivers, lakes, and aquifers comes from rainfall, creating a contrast between wet and dry Spain.
- Relief and Topography: Influence the organization of watersheds, erosive capacity, and the formation of lakes and aquifers.
- Soils: Rock type favors runoff
Earth’s Internal Dynamics and Plate Tectonics
1. Earth’s Internal Dynamics
Earth’s internal activity stems from the vast thermal energy stored within its interior, driving convective currents.
Convection Within Earth
Convection involves updrafts and downdrafts within a fluid, occurring when the top layer becomes denser and sinks, while the less dense bottom layer rises. As hot fluid expands, its density decreases, leading to updrafts. Conversely, colder, denser fluid sinks, creating downdrafts. This process occurs in two distinct layers: the
Read MoreSpanish Geography: Exploring Spain’s Diverse Landscapes
Geographical Overview of Spain
Spain, a medium-sized European country (505,990 km2), comprises a mainland (97.55%), the Balearic Islands (0.99%), the Canary Islands (1.45%), and Ceuta and Melilla (0.1%). This diverse area boasts a rich variety of human and natural landscapes.
Location
Spain is situated in the temperate Northern Hemisphere, between Africa and Europe, and the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. This unique location has made Spain a crossroads of natural and geopolitical significance
Read MoreUnderstanding Cement Properties and Manufacturing
ITEM 6: CEMENT
1. Content of a Standard
Purpose: This section outlines the purpose of the standard and describes specimen testing procedures, including sample characteristics (quantity, volume, weight), equipment, and tools used in the process. It also explains how results are obtained.
2. Definitions
Pozzolanic Activity: Finely ground pozzolan reacts with Ca(OH)2, creating stable compounds with binding properties.
Hydraulic Activity: Hydraulic binders, when mixed with water, set and harden upon contact