Earthquakes and Volcanoes: Types, Distribution, and Eruptions
Earthquakes According to Their Origin
There are two main types of earthquakes: tectonic and volcanic.
Tectonic Earthquakes
These are produced by the movement of rock masses along faults or tears and friction between plates. These earthquakes may occur due to different processes and are distinguished by depth:
- Those that happen because of the movement of two blocks along a fault. Their hypocenter is located at shallow depths, generally less than 50 km. They are the most intense and, therefore, the most
Understanding Earth’s Dynamics: Folds, Faults, Volcanoes, and Orogenesis
Understanding Earth’s Dynamics
Folds
Folds are continuous deformations produced by compressive stresses. Bending forms a flat terrain.
Elements of a Fold
- Hinge: The area of maximum curvature of the fold, joining points that are the axes.
- Direction: The bending angle with the axis in a north-south direction.
- Axial Plane: Contains the hinge lines, dividing the fold into flanks or limbs.
- Cartography: The angle between the surfaces of each of the sides with a horizontal plane.
- Core: The innermost and tightest
Renewable and Traditional Energy Sources in Spain
Renewable and Traditional Energy Sources
Solar energy harnesses heat and sunlight. Solar thermal panels heat water for domestic use. Thermoelectric plants use mirrors to produce steam. Photovoltaic panels convert solar energy directly into electricity using silicon.
Geothermal energy uses underground steam or hot water. In Spain, its use is limited, mainly for heating greenhouses and spas.
Tidal power utilizes the force of seawater. In Spain, experimental plants are being built to harness wave power
Read MoreHydrostatic Pressure and Fluid Dynamics: Key Principles
Pascal’s Principle
Pascal stated that there is a fundamental difference between solids and liquids. Solids transmit forces only in the direction they are applied. In contrast, both fluids transmit pressures in all directions. This property has been proven experimentally since antiquity and is known as Pascal’s Principle. It can be phrased as: “Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel.”
Hydrostatics
Hydrostatics
Read MoreWastewater Treatment: Flotation and Sedimentation Techniques
Wastewater Treatment: Flotation and Sedimentation
Flotation is a process for separating solids of low density or liquid particles from a liquid phase. The separation is accomplished by introducing a gas (usually air) in a liquid phase in the form of bubbles. The liquid phase is subjected to a pressurization process to achieve an operating pressure ranging from 2 atm in the presence of sufficient air to obtain air and water saturation. Then, the air-saturated liquid undergoes a process of depressurization
Read MoreEarth’s Geosphere: Composition, Minerals, and Resources
The Geosphere: Earth’s Solid Layers
The geosphere is generally a solid layer, although in some areas it may be molten due to high internal temperatures. It consists of rocks, minerals, and metals. The geosphere has three main layers:
- Crust: The outermost solid layer, with a thickness of 27 to 70 km on continents and 6 to 18 km under the oceans.
- Mantle: The intermediate layer, composed of rocks, extending from the crust to a depth of 2,900 km.
- Core: The deepest layer, consisting of an iron-nickel core