Earthquakes and Volcanoes: Types, Distribution, and Eruptions

Earthquakes According to Their Origin

There are two main types of earthquakes: tectonic and volcanic.

Tectonic Earthquakes

These are produced by the movement of rock masses along faults or tears and friction between plates. These earthquakes may occur due to different processes and are distinguished by depth:

  1. Those that happen because of the movement of two blocks along a fault. Their hypocenter is located at shallow depths, generally less than 50 km. They are the most intense and, therefore, the most
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Understanding Earth’s Dynamics: Folds, Faults, Volcanoes, and Orogenesis

Understanding Earth’s Dynamics

Folds

Folds are continuous deformations produced by compressive stresses. Bending forms a flat terrain.

Elements of a Fold

  • Hinge: The area of maximum curvature of the fold, joining points that are the axes.
  • Direction: The bending angle with the axis in a north-south direction.
  • Axial Plane: Contains the hinge lines, dividing the fold into flanks or limbs.
  • Cartography: The angle between the surfaces of each of the sides with a horizontal plane.
  • Core: The innermost and tightest
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Renewable and Traditional Energy Sources in Spain

Renewable and Traditional Energy Sources

Solar energy harnesses heat and sunlight. Solar thermal panels heat water for domestic use. Thermoelectric plants use mirrors to produce steam. Photovoltaic panels convert solar energy directly into electricity using silicon.

Geothermal energy uses underground steam or hot water. In Spain, its use is limited, mainly for heating greenhouses and spas.

Tidal power utilizes the force of seawater. In Spain, experimental plants are being built to harness wave power

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Hydrostatic Pressure and Fluid Dynamics: Key Principles

Pascal’s Principle

Pascal stated that there is a fundamental difference between solids and liquids. Solids transmit forces only in the direction they are applied. In contrast, both fluids transmit pressures in all directions. This property has been proven experimentally since antiquity and is known as Pascal’s Principle. It can be phrased as: “Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel.”

Hydrostatics

Hydrostatics

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Wastewater Treatment: Flotation and Sedimentation Techniques

Wastewater Treatment: Flotation and Sedimentation

Flotation is a process for separating solids of low density or liquid particles from a liquid phase. The separation is accomplished by introducing a gas (usually air) in a liquid phase in the form of bubbles. The liquid phase is subjected to a pressurization process to achieve an operating pressure ranging from 2 atm in the presence of sufficient air to obtain air and water saturation. Then, the air-saturated liquid undergoes a process of depressurization

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Earth’s Geosphere: Composition, Minerals, and Resources

The Geosphere: Earth’s Solid Layers

The geosphere is generally a solid layer, although in some areas it may be molten due to high internal temperatures. It consists of rocks, minerals, and metals. The geosphere has three main layers:

  • Crust: The outermost solid layer, with a thickness of 27 to 70 km on continents and 6 to 18 km under the oceans.
  • Mantle: The intermediate layer, composed of rocks, extending from the crust to a depth of 2,900 km.
  • Core: The deepest layer, consisting of an iron-nickel core
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