Key Concepts in Earth Science, Culture, and Global Politics
Fundamental Concepts and Definitions
Physical Geography and Earth Science
Geography
The study of the distribution and interaction of physical and human features on the Earth’s surface.
Topography
The combined characteristics of landforms and their distribution in a region.
Relief
The difference in elevation between the highest and lowest points in a specific area.
Uplands
Areas of high elevation, often characterized by very low mountains or hills.
Continental Divide
A line that separates river systems flowing
Read MoreCaliphate Architectural Innovations: Córdoba Mosque Minaret and Facade
Stylistic Evolution of Corinthian Capitals
The degeneration of the Corinthian capital is marked by simplification. The acanthus leaves are simple and far apart, reflecting a process of geometrization that became increasingly accentuated. This specific model is also found during the time of Al-Hakam II (mid-tenth century).
The Minaret of Abd al-Rahman III (951–952)
Abd al-Rahman III commissioned a new minaret, constructed between 951 and 952, replacing the earlier structure from the time of Hisham
Read MoreFundamental Structural Elements and Applied Forces
What Defines a Structure?
A structure is a set of interconnected elements capable of withstanding forces and transmitting them to the support points, ensuring the system is both stable and resistant.
The forces acting upon a structure are referred to as loads.
Resistant and Stable Structures
A structure must possess resistance (the stamina to withstand loads) and stability (the ability not to fall or collapse).
A structure’s resilience is determined by its capacity to safely manage and transmit the applied
Read MoreFluid Dynamics, Colloids, and Powder Characterization
Newtonian Flow and Viscosity Principles
Newtonian fluids exhibit a linear relationship between shear stress ($\tau$) and shear rate ($\gamma$), following Newton’s law of viscosity:
$$\tau = \eta \cdot \gamma$$
Characteristics of Newtonian Fluids
- Constant Viscosity: Viscosity ($\eta$) remains unchanged regardless of the shear rate.
- Linear Relationship: Shear stress and shear rate have a direct, linear relationship.
Examples of Newtonian Fluids
- Water
- Gases
- Simple oils
Non-Newtonian Flow Behavior
Non-Newtonian
Read MoreClimatology of the Iberian Peninsula: Types and Characteristics
Key Parameters for Climate Analysis
Temperature Metrics
- Minimum recorded temperature and month of registration.
- Temperatures below zero (Winter conditions, leading to rain or snow).
- Maximum recorded temperature and month of registration.
- Thermal oscillation (amplitude): Maximum Mean Temperature (TM) minus Minimum Mean Temperature (Tm).
- Seasons definition: Summer (temperatures higher than 25 °C); Winter (temperatures lower than 0 °C).
Rainfall and Precipitation
- Total annual precipitation (in millimeters,
Global Environmental Challenges: Pollution, Resources, and Biodiversity Loss
Environmental Impacts of Resource Use
Living Resources and Their Exploitation
Livestock and Intensive Farming Impacts
Intensive livestock farming presents major environmental problems, including the use of treated feed, reduction in biodiversity, and significant pollution caused by slurry (manure and excrements).
Marine Resources and Fishing Challenges
Environmental problems related to fishing include:
- Fishing overexploitation.
- Use of non-selective nets and drag fishing techniques.
- Impacts from climate