Understanding the Political System of the Restoration Era
The Political System of the Restoration: The New Political System: Conservative groups received with satisfaction the Restoration of the Bourbon monarchy, hoping that the new political stability would return. Cánovas wanted a new political model that would overcome some of the problems of liberalism: the partisanship and military intervention in politics. To achieve this, he proposed targets: developing a constitution based on bipartisanship and pacifying the country by ending the war in Cuba
Read More19th Century Europe: Vienna Congress to Liberal Revolutions
The Congress of Vienna and European Restoration
Following Napoleon’s banishment to St. Helena in 1814, absolute monarchs of Europe convened in Vienna, the capital of the Austrian Empire. Chaired by the Austrian Emperor and Chancellor Metternich, European absolute monarchs operated under three core principles:
- The Principle of Legitimacy: Rulers chosen by God were to be restored, re-establishing pre-French Revolution monarchies and suppressing revolutionary ideas that challenged the aristocracy. The
Islamic Fortifications and Palaces: A Historical Architectural Journey
The Evolution of Islamic Military and Urban Architecture
A formalized system of defense was established in the eighth century when the frontiers of the Muslim world became established. From that period to the time of the Ottomans, every Caliph seems to have been involved in fortifying and garrisoning their towns.
Whether on the Central Asian frontier or in Spain, in new frontier areas or traditional ones, it is reasonable to assume that early Muslims simply followed older, prevailing types of military
Read MoreFranco’s Spain: Repression, State Structure, and Economic Impact
The Francoist Repression
Franco never showed any interest in seeking reconciliation with the defeated. His aim was always to destroy or subdue all those who showed opposition to the regime, known as ‘enemies of Spain’. The end of the conflict did not involve an end to violence, but rather the institutionalization of repression, through the Law of Political Responsibilities in 1939, and the Law for the Repression of Communism and Masonry. The army was the main executor of these repressive policies
Read MoreSpain’s Tumultuous Early 20th Century: Alfonso XIII’s Reign (1902-1923)
Alfonso XIII’s Reign: Spain in Crisis (1902-1923)
The period from 1902 to 1923, under the reign of Alfonso XIII, was marked by profound political and social instability that challenged the very foundations of the Restoration system.
Permanent Instability: Causes and Consequences
The political crisis during Alfonso XIII’s reign stemmed from several factors:
- Alfonso XIII’s direct involvement in frequent government changes.
- Intense struggles between emerging political factions.
- Political manipulation primarily
Early History of the British Isles
Early Peoples of the British Isles
Before the Roman Empire, several cultures and peoples settled in the British Isles.
Homo heidelbergensis: Around 500,000 years ago, when Great Britain was still connected to Europe, Homo heidelbergensis populated the area.
Homo neanderthalensis: Approximately 230,000 years ago, Homo neanderthalensis arrived in Britain.
Homo sapiens: Though originating 200,000 years ago, Homo sapiens arrived in Great Britain around 40,000 years ago, with a substantial population formed