20th Century Turning Points: Revolutions, Depression, and Dictatorships
The Tsarist Autocracy and Russian Society
In the early twentieth century, the Russian Empire survived under monarchical absolutism, known as the Tsarist autocracy.
Characteristics of Tsarist Rule
The Tsar ruled by decree, was not subject to any constitution, and did not have to answer to a parliament. Control of the Empire was assured by the bureaucracy, the army, and the Orthodox Church.
Economic and Social Structure
Agriculture was the main economic activity. Land was concentrated in the hands of a
Read MoreEstablishing the Second Spanish Republic: 1930-1933 Reforms
The End of the Dictatorship and the Republic’s Proclamation
Following Primo de Rivera’s resignation, the return to the previous regime’s dictatorship was impossible for three reasons:
- The dynastic parties had lost their organizational structure and were discredited.
- The monarch was unpopular, because public opinion compared his figure unfavorably to that of the dictator.
- The anti-dynastic forces took a united initiative, which culminated in the Pact of San Sebastián (1930).
Republicanism until 1931
Read MoreThe 1884 Berlin Conference and the Colonization of Africa
Early European Contact with Africa
Until the end of the 15th century, Africa was an almost unknown continent, except for its northern region bordering the Mediterranean, where ancient civilizations like Egypt had settled or had been colonized by Greeks, Romans, and Arabs. Beyond the Mediterranean coast, Africa opened into vast deserts that Europeans had not yet crossed.
In the 15th century, the expansion of the Ottoman Empire made it necessary to find new routes to the East, the land of silk and spices.
Read MoreThe Empire of Charles V: Spain and the Holy Roman Empire
The Life of Charles V
Son of Philip the Handsome, Archduke of Austria (son of Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I and Mary of Burgundy), and Joanna of Castile (daughter of King Ferdinand of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile), Charles was born in Flanders. Tutored by Adrian of Utrecht, he was educated in the Flemish court and received an excellent cultural and religious education. In 1526, he married Isabella of Portugal, effectively unifying the entire Iberian Peninsula under his family’s influence.
Read MoreThe Spanish Civil War: Dynamics of the Republican and Nationalist Zones
The Two Zones of Conflict
The Republican Zone
The Social Revolution
- Resulted in the formation of committees and bodies of popular power.
- Factories were occupied and collectivized, and lands of the landowners were confiscated.
- This process was driven by Anarcho-syndicalism (CNT and FAI).
- Unleashed strong anti-clericalism: priests were persecuted as enemies, sometimes resulting in death or imprisonment.
Political Control and Internal Division
In 1936, a new coalition government was formed in the Republic
Read MoreThe French Revolution: Causes, Key Events, and Aftermath (1789-1799)
The Roots of Revolution
Why is the French Revolution historically significant?
Because its ideas changed human history.
Financial and Social Causes
The structure of the Ancient Regime meant that only the Third Estate paid taxes. The expenses of the state were very high, and the government did not have enough money solely from the taxes collected from the Third Estate.
Failed Attempts at Reform
Louis XVI tried to reform this system under various financial ministers. He called for democracy on a local level.
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