The Empire of Charles V: Spain and the Holy Roman Empire
The Life of Charles V
Son of Philip the Handsome, Archduke of Austria (son of Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I and Mary of Burgundy), and Joanna of Castile (daughter of King Ferdinand of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile), Charles was born in Flanders. Tutored by Adrian of Utrecht, he was educated in the Flemish court and received an excellent cultural and religious education. In 1526, he married Isabella of Portugal, effectively unifying the entire Iberian Peninsula under his family’s influence.
Read MoreThe Spanish Civil War: Dynamics of the Republican and Nationalist Zones
The Two Zones of Conflict
The Republican Zone
The Social Revolution
- Resulted in the formation of committees and bodies of popular power.
- Factories were occupied and collectivized, and lands of the landowners were confiscated.
- This process was driven by Anarcho-syndicalism (CNT and FAI).
- Unleashed strong anti-clericalism: priests were persecuted as enemies, sometimes resulting in death or imprisonment.
Political Control and Internal Division
In 1936, a new coalition government was formed in the Republic
Read MoreThe French Revolution: Causes, Key Events, and Aftermath (1789-1799)
The Roots of Revolution
Why is the French Revolution historically significant?
Because its ideas changed human history.
Financial and Social Causes
The structure of the Ancient Regime meant that only the Third Estate paid taxes. The expenses of the state were very high, and the government did not have enough money solely from the taxes collected from the Third Estate.
Failed Attempts at Reform
Louis XVI tried to reform this system under various financial ministers. He called for democracy on a local level.
Read MoreFranco’s Regime: Opposition and Political Reforms in the 1960s
The Opposition to the Franco Regime
- A growing desire for change emerged, stemming both from the middle class (which benefited from the economic upswing but was distant from Francoist ideology) and from industrial workers, who were increasingly politicized.
- Urban workers, subjected to brutal changes in their living conditions—living with low wages and crowded into new neighborhoods around major cities—adopted an attitude against the Franco regime, supporting a change in the political system.
- In
Spain’s Path to Conflict: Dictatorship, Republic, and Civil War
Primo de Rivera’s Military Dictatorship (1923–1930)
By 1923, dissatisfaction with the Restoration Monarchy was widespread. General Miguel Primo de Rivera established a military dictatorship with the avowed aim of taking a break from political life to end corruption.
Stages of the Dictatorship
- Early Years: Initially, Primo de Rivera enjoyed some popularity, even within the workers’ movement. The protectorate in Morocco was pacified by a French-Spanish alliance in 1925.
- Maintaining Power: A strong economy
The Aftermath of World War II: Political and Territorial Changes
The Axis Powers and Collaborator States
The Axis Powers (the Nazi and collaborationist states) included:
- The German Reich: Formed by Germany, which annexed Austria, the Sudetenland, western Poland, Luxembourg, Alsace-Lorraine, Slovenia, and the Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia. Territories under direct administration of the German Reich were grouped into Comissariats General.
- Italy: An ally of Germany, its territory expanded after the annexation of Albania, Montenegro, and part of the Dalmatian coast.