Spain’s Progressive Biennium and Espartero’s Regency: 1840-1856
Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)
In 1854, discontented progressives and moderates staged a military coup known as the Vicalvarada (Vicálvaro), led by General O’Donnell. This uprising was accompanied by the Manzanares Manifesto, which reflected a strong desire to reform the existing political system.
A frightened and unsupported Queen Isabella II named Espartero as head of government, while O’Donnell, who had the support of the military, was appointed Minister of War. The new Cortes produced a new
Read MoreItalian Unification and Brazilian History: Key Events
Key Events in Italian Unification and Brazilian History
Italian Unification
- 1840s Coup Age
- 1845 Ragamuffin War
- Garibaldi’s Role: Played a crucial role in Italian unification.
- Challenges: The Church was losing believers, and there was a general loss of citizens.
Key Ideas and Processes
- Differing Ideas: Contrasting ideas between Italy and Germany. Loyalty and honor bound warriors.
- Resistance: Manzzini and Count Cavour, despite being opposites, aimed to control northern Austria and unify around the king.
- Garibaldi’
Habsburg Spain: Imperial Power, Conflicts, and Decline
The Reign of Charles V
Charles V inherited the Spanish throne in 1516. He inherited a vast empire and became the most powerful ruler of his time. His inheritance included:
- From the Catholic Monarchs: All the Spanish possessions, including the Crown of Castile and Aragon, parts of America, Italy (Sardinia, Naples, and Sicily), the Canary Islands, and some territories in Africa. As king of Spain, he was known as Charles I.
- From his paternal grandparents: The title of Holy Roman Emperor, along with territories
Understanding the Political System of the Restoration Era
The Political System of the Restoration: The New Political System: Conservative groups received with satisfaction the Restoration of the Bourbon monarchy, hoping that the new political stability would return. Cánovas wanted a new political model that would overcome some of the problems of liberalism: the partisanship and military intervention in politics. To achieve this, he proposed targets: developing a constitution based on bipartisanship and pacifying the country by ending the war in Cuba
Read More19th Century Europe: Vienna Congress to Liberal Revolutions
The Congress of Vienna and European Restoration
Following Napoleon’s banishment to St. Helena in 1814, absolute monarchs of Europe convened in Vienna, the capital of the Austrian Empire. Chaired by the Austrian Emperor and Chancellor Metternich, European absolute monarchs operated under three core principles:
- The Principle of Legitimacy: Rulers chosen by God were to be restored, re-establishing pre-French Revolution monarchies and suppressing revolutionary ideas that challenged the aristocracy. The
Islamic Fortifications and Palaces: A Historical Architectural Journey
The Evolution of Islamic Military and Urban Architecture
A formalized system of defense was established in the eighth century when the frontiers of the Muslim world became established. From that period to the time of the Ottomans, every Caliph seems to have been involved in fortifying and garrisoning their towns.
Whether on the Central Asian frontier or in Spain, in new frontier areas or traditional ones, it is reasonable to assume that early Muslims simply followed older, prevailing types of military
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