Czarist Russia: Revolutions of 1905 and 1917
Czarist Russia
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Russian Empire encompassed an immense territory that amounted to one-sixth of the earth’s surface. It extended from western Europe, across the steppes and Siberian forests, to the Pacific Ocean, and from the frozen lands of the Arctic to the temperate shores of the Black Sea.
This vast space housed around 150 million inhabitants in 1917. The population was very unevenly distributed and possessed a great diversity of nationalities, peoples, and
Read MoreFranco’s Spain: Political and Economic Evolution (1937-1975)
The Franco Regime (1937-1975)
The Franco regime evolved significantly between 1937 and 1975. During the initial period (1937-1959), the regime established a dictatorial political system. From 1960 to 1975, political authoritarianism persisted alongside notable economic development.
Ideological Foundations
- Anti-parliamentarism and Anti-liberalism: These ideas were drawn from European fascism.
- Anti-Communism: A radical opposition to communism, accentuated during the Cold War.
- Nationalism-Catholicism: The
Fascism, Nazism, and the Origins of World War II
The Discrediting of Freedom: Fascism and the Road to War
The dictatorships and political problems of fascism in the interwar period stemmed from the dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Versailles. The exaggerated reparations imposed on Germany fostered a sense of humiliation among Germans. While a minority prospered during the war, many former combatants felt uncompensated for their sacrifices, leading to widespread poverty. Disillusionment with parliamentary democracy grew, and people sought alternatives.
Read MoreSpain’s Restoration: Monarchy, Constitution, and Canovas
The Spanish Restoration: A New Era
His first goal was to firmly establish the monarchy, even above the Constitution. For him, the Monarchy and the Parliament were the two pillars of Spanish history. The Crown needed to recover the prestige lost during the reign of Isabel II. He envisioned a monarchy that shared sovereignty with the Parliament, leveraging extensive expertise and playing a significant role in political life.
Constitutional Framework and Liberal Tendencies
Second, the constitutional framework
Read MoreDemocratic Transition in Spain: Key Events and Challenges
Spain’s Transition to Democracy
After the death of dictator Franco, Spain began a transition process to move from a dictatorship to a democratic state under the rule of law. This process started following Franco’s death on November 20, 1975, and concluded after the electoral victory of the PSOE on October 28, 1978.
King Juan Carlos I, Franco’s successor, aimed to achieve a consensus that would avoid confrontation. Initially, he maintained Arias Navarro as President to avoid alarming Franco supporters.
Read MoreFernando VII and Isabel II: Spain’s Transition to Liberalism
Fernando VII (1814-1832)
As we previously saw, Fernando VII restored absolutism in Spain as soon as he returned from France in 1814, in line with what was happening in the rest of Europe (Congress of Vienna). The Constitution of 1812 and the reforms of the Cortes de Cádiz were repealed, and liberals were persecuted, jailed, or forced into exile.
Fernando VII reigned until 1832, and we can divide his reign into three periods:
Sexenio Absolutista: From 1814 to 1820, Fernando tried to restore all the