Spain’s Restoration: Monarchy, Constitution, and Canovas
The Spanish Restoration: A New Era
His first goal was to firmly establish the monarchy, even above the Constitution. For him, the Monarchy and the Parliament were the two pillars of Spanish history. The Crown needed to recover the prestige lost during the reign of Isabel II. He envisioned a monarchy that shared sovereignty with the Parliament, leveraging extensive expertise and playing a significant role in political life.
Constitutional Framework and Liberal Tendencies
Second, the constitutional framework
Read MoreDemocratic Transition in Spain: Key Events and Challenges
Spain’s Transition to Democracy
After the death of dictator Franco, Spain began a transition process to move from a dictatorship to a democratic state under the rule of law. This process started following Franco’s death on November 20, 1975, and concluded after the electoral victory of the PSOE on October 28, 1978.
King Juan Carlos I, Franco’s successor, aimed to achieve a consensus that would avoid confrontation. Initially, he maintained Arias Navarro as President to avoid alarming Franco supporters.
Read MoreFernando VII and Isabel II: Spain’s Transition to Liberalism
Fernando VII (1814-1832)
As we previously saw, Fernando VII restored absolutism in Spain as soon as he returned from France in 1814, in line with what was happening in the rest of Europe (Congress of Vienna). The Constitution of 1812 and the reforms of the Cortes de Cádiz were repealed, and liberals were persecuted, jailed, or forced into exile.
Fernando VII reigned until 1832, and we can divide his reign into three periods:
Sexenio Absolutista: From 1814 to 1820, Fernando tried to restore all the
The Great War: Origins, Timeline, and Aftermath
World War I: A Summary
Causes of World War I
- Power Rivalry: Competition among European powers.
- Nationalism and Arms Races: A period of armed peace.
- Triple Alliance and Triple Entente: Complex web of alliances.
- Conflicts: Ongoing tensions between nations.
- England / Germany: Naval and economic rivalry.
- France / Germany: Historical animosity and territorial disputes.
- Russia / Austria-Hungary: Conflicts over influence in the Balkans.
Immediate Cause
- Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand: June 14, 1914, in
Insular Art: Details of Anglo-Irish Manuscript Illumination
Early Medieval Church Architecture
St. Apollinare in Classe Example
In St. Apollinare in Classe, an example of a cancel is preserved. A plate-inserted cancel, typically 60cm to 1m high, featuring decorative elements, was used to secure it to the altar area. It might have been draped with curtains.
Cancel and Iconostasis
A cancel is generally a low structure, around 0.5m to 1m high, separating the sanctuary. An iconostasis is similar but often encloses the space more fully, leaving only doorways. The
Read MoreHitler’s Path to War: German Expansion and Appeasement
Hitler’s Foreign Policy Aims
- All German-speaking peoples to be brought into the Reich.
- The frontiers of Germany would be extended to cover those areas where the population was predominantly German.
- The increase in living space – Lebensraum.
- Countries involved would include Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Soviet Russia.
- To regain German land lost through the Treaty of Versailles.
Early Violations and Rearmament Actions
- Hitler walked out of the Disarmament Conference (1933).
- Hitler withdrew Germany