The Protestant Reformation: Europe’s Religious Transformation
The Protestant Reformation: 16th Century Impact
The Protestant Reformation was a religious movement which began in the first half of the 16th century. It instigated the division of the Christian Church and the founding of Protestant churches.
Causes of the Protestant Reformation
Several factors contributed to the onset of the Reformation:
- The low clergy’s lack of training.
- The bad example set by the high clergy.
- The Church’s immense wealth.
- The buying and selling of ecclesiastical positions.
- The controversial
World War I: Key Phases and Turning Points
The War of Movement (August-November 1914)
When the war began in August 1914, Germany and Austria-Hungary (the Central Powers) enjoyed significant advantages: powerful armies and easy communication. However, the necessity of fighting a two-front war required a quick victory. The German plan called for a swift strike against France, aiming for its capitulation within six weeks, allowing the Central Powers to then focus all their efforts on the Russian front. Initially, these predictions seemed to
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World War II: Pre-War Conflicts (1930-1939)
During 1930-1939, the League of Nations proved unable to prevent major wars and aggressions:
- 1931: Japan invaded China.
- 1935: Italy invaded Ethiopia.
- 1935: Adolf Hitler initiated a policy of remilitarization, violating the Treaty of Versailles.
- 1936: Hitler and Mussolini strengthened their alliance, supporting fascist General Franco during the Spanish Civil War.
- Meanwhile, France and Great Britain pursued a policy of appeasement towards Germany.
- France and Great
European Alliances: Bismarck’s Diplomatic Legacy
Harmony of the Three Emperors
In the late 19th century, European peace was a fragile construct. To maintain it, diplomats resorted to an impressive display of diplomatic maneuvers that resulted in the formation of various alliances, which left the European continent divided into power blocs. The network of covenants was so complex that it baffled even experts. For this reason, this document focuses on the major alliances, avoiding deeper labyrinths.
After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, in which
Read MoreIsabel II’s Reign: Spain’s Liberal Era (1833-1868)
The Reign of Isabel II: Spain’s Liberal Transformation (1833-1868)
During the reign of Isabel II (1833-1868), two main stages can be distinguished:
Minority (1833-1843)
During this period, the regency was exercised by Maria Cristina and later by Espartero.
Coming of Age (1843-1868)
Transition to Liberalism: Key Features
The transition from the absolutist state of Ferdinand VII to Isabel II’s liberal reign presented a series of features:
- Key figures were monarchists and moderate liberal reformers. The Moderates
Gorbachev’s Era: Perestroika, Glasnost, and Soviet Collapse
Russia’s Transformation: 1985-1991
No period in peacetime in twentieth-century Russia saw such dramatic change as the years between 1985 and 1991. During this time, Russia achieved greater political freedom than it had ever enjoyed before. The breakup itself was remarkably peaceful, in sharp contrast to the extensive violence that accompanied the separation of the constituent parts of Yugoslavia.
Gorbachev’s Leadership and Early Reforms
Generally, Soviet leaders required time to build up their power
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