European Colonialism and Pre-War Tensions
Africa’s Colonial Division
The Scramble for Africa: Following America’s independence in 1824, European powers, including France, Britain, Germany, Portugal, Italy, and Spain, intensified their colonial ambitions in Africa. By 1880, much of Africa was under European control, with Britain leading the partition. Cecil Rhodes aimed to connect British territories from north to south (Egypt to Rwanda), while France preferred horizontal colonization. The Berlin Conference (1884-1885) established rules for
Read MoreSpain’s Constitutional Evolution under Elizabeth II
Elizabeth II’s Constitutionalism in Spain
The government during Isabel II’s reign was characterized by a liberal system, where power alternated between Progressives and Moderates. This alternation was reflected in the different constitutions enacted.
Early Constitutionalism: 1834-1843
The Royal Statute of 1834
Promoted by Martínez de la Rosa, this statute attempted to establish a limited liberal system. It was a very restricted charter, granting limited rights. The Cortes (parliament) were bicameral,
Read MoreTotalitarian Regimes and Global Economic Crisis
After the death of Lenin, Trotsky fought for power in 1924. Stalin ultimately won.
The Rise of Totalitarian Regimes
Stalinism in the Soviet Union
Stalinist Political Developments
Stalinism, characterized by Stalin’s personal rule, established a totalitarian police regime. Political dissidents were sent to concentration camps in Siberia.
Stalinist Economic Policies
The economy was transformed through planned five-year plans, marked by:
- Collectivization of the countryside: Rural farms were transformed into
Key Events and Figures of the Russian Revolution
The Russian Revolution of 1917
The Russian Revolution of 1917 unfolded during World War I, largely triggered by the imperial government’s inability to effectively manage the war effort under Tsar Nicholas II. This pivotal event comprised two distinct stages:
- February Revolution: Led to the collapse of the Tsarist autocracy, the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II, and the establishment of the Provisional Government.
- October Revolution: Saw the Bolsheviks seize power, leading to the Russian Civil War and
Spain’s Constitutional Journey: From Old Regime to Liberalism
Spain’s Constitutional Transformation: End of the Old Regime
The promulgation of a constitution marked the end of the Old Regime in Spain. During the reign of Carlos IV (1788–1808), the economic situation worsened, and the influence of the French Revolution spread. After Napoleon’s rise in 1799, Spain’s Prime Minister, Manuel Godoy, renewed alliances with France, joining the Continental Blockade against Britain. Despite this, the British defeated both fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805).
In
Read MoreSpain’s 19th Century Political Transformations
Crisis of the Bourbon Monarchy
Under Charles IV, the monarchy faced a crisis. His initial “revolution” against the French led to a declaration of war on France (1793), which ended in failure (1795). In 1799, Godoy allied with Napoleon, authorizing French troops to cross Spain (Treaty of Fontainebleau, 1807). This alliance and Godoy’s policies provoked widespread discontent, culminating in the Aranjuez Mutiny of 1808.
War of Independence (1808-1814)
On May 2, 1808, the people of Madrid rose against
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