British History: Restoration to the Early 19th Century
The Restoration Era (1660-1688)
Charles II: Challenges and Rebuilding
- Great Plague of London (1665): A devastating bubonic plague epidemic during the summer, communicated via public bulletins.
- Great Fire of London (1666): Started by Thomas Farriner, commemorated by the Monument, and documented by John Evelyn.
- Architectural Legacy: Sir Christopher Wren’s significant contributions, including the iconic towers of St. Paul’s Cathedral.
The Stuart Family: James II and William III
James II: Religious Tensions
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Wilfred Owen’s Dulce et Decorum Est: War’s Brutal Reality
Wilfred Owen’s “Dulce et Decorum Est”: A Poetic Legacy
Introduction to “Dulce et Decorum Est”
Wilfred Owen’s powerful poem, Dulce et Decorum Est, penned in 1920, stands as a stark indictment of war’s realities. Owen, despite a financially humble background, aspired to attend university but was unexpectedly drafted into World War I. In 1917, after experiencing the horrors of battle, he was diagnosed with shell shock and admitted to a mental hospital in Edinburgh.
Wilfred Owen’s Life and Influences
During
Read MoreKarl Marx: Historical Context and Intellectual Foundations
Karl Marx: Historical Context and Early Life
The era of Karl Marx was marked by significant societal upheaval. Key events included the Napoleonic conquests, the subsequent Restoration and its decline, the transformative Industrial Revolution, and the burgeoning labor movement. Europe also witnessed the widespread revolutions of 1848. Following Napoleon’s defeat, nationalism surged across the continent. Despite attempts to restore Europe’s pre-Napoleonic borders, the Industrial Revolution profoundly
Read MoreKey Eras in Early 20th Century Spanish History
The Crisis of 1898
In 1895, an independence movement erupted in Cuba. In 1898, the United States declared war on Spain following the sinking of the battleship Maine in Havana. The disaster of ’98 came with the Spanish defeat, leading to the frustration of the Spanish political class and the pessimism of intellectuals. From this climate, the intellectual movement known as Regeneracionismo emerged, denouncing the decline of Spain and proposing reforms to overcome it. Its most prominent figure was Joaquín
Read MoreKey Historical Shifts: Religion, Politics, Science
The Protestant Reformation: Causes and Impact
The Protestant Reformation, initiated by Martin Luther in 1517, marked a profound theological division between Roman Catholics and Protestants. Luther asserted that religious authority stemmed from the Bible, not from the Catholic Church or the Pope.
Its primary causes included:
- Abuses within the Catholic Church: Widespread corruption and practices like the sale of indulgences.
- Shifting Worldview: The influence of Renaissance thought fostered new perspectives.
Spain’s Revolutionary Six Years and Monarchy Restoration
Spain’s Revolutionary Six Years (1868-1874)
The 1868 Revolution and Provisional Government
Federalists and Republicans sought significant changes, including regime alteration, the abolition of the quintas (forced military conscription), the abolition of slavery, and laws protecting workers.
The Cortes framed the Constitution of 1869, which established principles such as:
- National sovereignty with a constitutional monarchy
- Declaration of individual rights
- Bicameral legislature
- Executive power vested in