European History: Revolutions, Empires, and Social Change
The Ancien Régime: State-Based Society
The social structure of the Ancien Régime was divided into three distinct estates:
First Estate: Nobility
The nobility held the highest status. They were wealthy, powerful, and typically lived in castles or large estates. They received income and privileges but were exempt from paying taxes.
Second Estate: Clergy
The clergy were also privileged. They often lived in cities and wielded significant power due to the populace’s religious belief and the Church’s influence.
Key Concepts of the Cold War and Decolonization History
Understanding Post-War Global History
The Brezhnev Doctrine Defined
The Brezhnev Doctrine was a policy established by the Soviet Union in 1968. It asserted that the USSR could use military force to prevent any communist country from deviating from communism. This justification was notably used to send troops to Czechoslovakia during the Prague Spring. The primary goal was to maintain absolute control over Eastern Europe.
The Cuban Missile Crisis and Its Main Outcome
In 1962, the United States discovered
Read MoreSpain’s 19th Century: From Revolution to Restoration
The Progressive Biennium and the Liberal Union
The Progressive Biennium, led by Espartero, was supported by a centrist party sponsored by O’Donnell called the Liberal Union, which integrated moderate progressives and conservatives. The new government launched a confiscation of church lands and adopted the Law of Railways. It was a period of crises and social agitation with many protests. This was the reason the queen gave for removing the progressives from government. Between 1856 and 1866, the government
Read MoreThe Great War, Russian Revolution, and Spanish Monarchy (1902-1931)
The First World War: Causes
On June 28, 1914, Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, paid a visit to Sarajevo, where he was assassinated. Austria and Germany declared war on Serbia. In response, there was a chain sequence of war declarations among major European countries. Two main groups were formed:
- The Central Powers: Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire (Turkey).
- The Allies: Britain, Russia, France, Belgium, Serbia, and later joined by the U.S.,
Spain’s Economic Transformation Under Franco (1939–1973)
Spain’s International Position and Post-War Isolation
During the Second World War, Spain remained neutral, despite Franco’s meetings with Mussolini and Hitler. However, in late 1941, Spain partially supported the Axis by sending the Blue Division (Falangist volunteers) to fight against Russia. Only half of those volunteers returned by 1944.
After the war, the Franco regime faced severe challenges:
- Prince Juan de Borbón of Spain claimed the throne in 1945.
- The struggles of the maquis increased, harassing
Europe’s 16th Century Religious and Economic Transformation
The Protestant Reformation
The Protestant Reformation was a religious movement that began in the first half of the 16th century. It sparked the division of the Christian church and led to the founding of Protestant churches.
Causes of the Reformation
- Poor training of the lower clergy: The church hierarchy did not prioritize the training of its priests, and many behaved inappropriately.
- Corruption of the higher clergy: Most high-ranking church officials held their positions for personal gain, disrespecting