Spain’s Liberal Triennium: Constitutional Reforms and Absolutist Opposition
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823): Colonel Rafael del Riego led a revolt with his soldiers, touring Andalusia and proclaiming the Constitution of 1812. The passivity and neutrality of the army of peasants forced the king to accept becoming constitutional. Fernando VII appointed a new government, proclaimed an amnesty, and convened elections. The Cortes were formed with a majority of Liberal MPs and began significant legislative work. Reforms such as freedom of industry and the abolition of guilds
Read MoreNazi Germany: Origins, Power, and Legacy
Roots of National Socialism
After the First World War, the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles (1919) fueled a German desire for revenge against France. The instability and exhaustion following the treaty facilitated the rise of National Socialism to power. This was due to two primary causes that occurred in the post-war period:
Excessive Harshness of the Versailles Treaty:
Territorial losses, heavy economic reparations for the war, and the fact that leaders of the new Weimar Republic were blamed
Francoist Spain: State Formation and Ideology
Ideological Foundations of the Franco Regime
On April 1, 1939, Franco declared the end of the Civil War. His victory paved the way for the establishment of a new state. The government formed on August 8, 1939, aligned with the regime’s ideological tendencies, undertook the task of consolidating the state, adapting to its evolving needs.
Basic Laws of the Francoist State
Lacking a formal constitution, this system was equipped with *Basic Laws* (also known as *Fundamental Laws*):
- The Constitutive Act
Shaping the Modern World: Industrialization, Empires, and 20th Century Transformations
The Dawn of Modernity: Industrialization, Empires, and Global Conflict
The Second Industrial Revolution and Global Expansion
The Second Industrial Revolution profoundly transformed the economies of major European powers. New techniques significantly augmented production, while advancements in trade and transport dramatically improved global connectivity.
This era also saw European nations establish vast colonial empires across Africa and Asia. Colonialism was driven primarily by economic motivations:
Read MoreCapitalism, Socialism, and Communism: A Marxist Perspective
The Revolutionary Nature of Capitalism and Its Contradictions
Capitalists were revolutionary when they broke with the feudal aristocracy, seeking new materials and new markets worldwide. Capitalism was revolutionary because it relies on competition and innovation, breaking with traditionalism and anything strictly because it is “immoral.” The model of capitalist thought emphasizes the primacy of money, competition, and the assessment of things by their quantity.
However, capitalism is incompatible
Read MoreImperialism and Colonialism: Causes, Forms, and Global Impact
Causes of Imperialism and Strategic Policies
Colonial possessions became a yardstick to measure the greatness and power of countries.
Demographic Factors
Colonies provided territories to send national demographic surpluses and reduce social tensions.
Economic Factors
Increased production during the Second Industrial Revolution created a need for raw materials for industry and new markets without customs barriers to sell industrial products.
Ideological Factors
Certain ideological currents manipulated Darwin’