Enlightened Despotism and Bourbon Reforms in 18th Century Spain
Enlightened Despotism
Upon the death of his brother Fernando VI, Carlos III ascended to the Spanish throne. Having ruled in Naples, he was familiar with Enlightenment ideals, advocating for progress and rationalization, thus introducing enlightened despotism to Spain.
In 1766, the Esquilache Riots erupted, a complex uprising fueled by civil unrest, food shortages, resentment towards foreign officials (Esquilache), and discontent among the privileged who saw their power diminished by reforms. The
Read MoreCrisis of 1808: Spain’s War of Independence & Revolution
The Crisis of 1808: War of Independence and Political Revolution
The crisis of 1808 encompasses a series of events that led to the exile of the Bourbons, the division of Spain, the War of Independence, and the first liberal political revolution in Spanish history, represented by the Cortes of Cadiz.
Causes
- Economic Hardship: The old regime faced increasing economic difficulties. The rising bourgeoisie possessed wealth but lacked access to land ownership and rights.
- External Conflicts: Ongoing wars stemming
The Rise of the Bourgeoisie and Medieval Urban Life
The Emergence of the Bourgeoisie
The growth of cities transformed feudal society. Kings, nobles, and ecclesiastics granted city dwellers personal freedoms and rights, such as property ownership and self-governance. This led to the formation of a new social group, the bourgeoisie, who were not part of the privileged class. They dedicated themselves to work and crafts, independent of feudal lords. Their wealth stemmed from trade, sales, and business profits.
Within the bourgeoisie, distinctions arose
Read MoreSpain’s Second Republic: A Tumultuous Journey (1931-1936)
The Second Spanish Republic
Proclamation of the Republic, the Constitution of 1931, and the Reformist Biennium
On April 12, 1931, municipal elections were held in Spain. On April 14, councilors proclaimed the Republic. King Alfonso XIII left the country and went into exile. Representatives of the Pact of San Sebastian formed a provisional government and officially proclaimed the Second Spanish Republic. The provisional government convened a Constituent Assembly election and enacted urgent measures,
Read MoreTsarist Russia & the Russian Revolution: A Concise History
1. Tsarist Russia in the Early 20th Century
In 1900, Russia, a diverse nation with over 140 million people, faced significant social and political challenges.
Czarism
Russia’s economy and society lagged behind other European powers. The political system rested on the Tsar’s absolute authority, supported by the nobility, senior administration, army, and Orthodox Church. While Alexander II introduced reforms like abolishing serfdom in 1861, the Tsar’s power and the nobility’s influence remained intact.
Read MoreSpanish Economy and Politics Under Franco (1939-1975)
Economy Under Franco (1939-1975)
Autarky (1939-1950)
The Spanish economy during Franco’s regime had three distinct stages. The first, autarky (1939-1950), was characterized by depression, shortages, and the disruption of modernization and growth initiated by the Republican government. Post-Civil War efforts focused on rebuilding infrastructure and implementing rationing.
Spain closed its borders to goods, services, and foreign capital. This policy stemmed from political isolation due to affiliations
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