European Alliances: Bismarck’s Diplomatic Legacy
Harmony of the Three Emperors
In the late 19th century, European peace was a fragile construct. To maintain it, diplomats resorted to an impressive display of diplomatic maneuvers that resulted in the formation of various alliances, which left the European continent divided into power blocs. The network of covenants was so complex that it baffled even experts. For this reason, this document focuses on the major alliances, avoiding deeper labyrinths.
After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, in which
Read MoreIsabel II’s Reign: Spain’s Liberal Era (1833-1868)
The Reign of Isabel II: Spain’s Liberal Transformation (1833-1868)
During the reign of Isabel II (1833-1868), two main stages can be distinguished:
Minority (1833-1843)
During this period, the regency was exercised by Maria Cristina and later by Espartero.
Coming of Age (1843-1868)
Transition to Liberalism: Key Features
The transition from the absolutist state of Ferdinand VII to Isabel II’s liberal reign presented a series of features:
- Key figures were monarchists and moderate liberal reformers. The Moderates
Gorbachev’s Era: Perestroika, Glasnost, and Soviet Collapse
Russia’s Transformation: 1985-1991
No period in peacetime in twentieth-century Russia saw such dramatic change as the years between 1985 and 1991. During this time, Russia achieved greater political freedom than it had ever enjoyed before. The breakup itself was remarkably peaceful, in sharp contrast to the extensive violence that accompanied the separation of the constituent parts of Yugoslavia.
Gorbachev’s Leadership and Early Reforms
Generally, Soviet leaders required time to build up their power
Read MoreSpanish Civil War: Final Campaigns and International Involvement
The Battle of the Ebro and the End of the War (July 1938-April 1939)
The Republic attempted to prevent the Nationalist advance on Valencia by launching what became known as the Battle of the Ebro. The aim was to cross the Ebro River and envelop from the rear the Nationalist armies that had advanced from Teruel to the Mediterranean. This initiated a brutal battle of positions, attacks, and counterattacks involving intense artillery and aerial combat, lasting four months. There was immense loss of
Read MoreSpain’s 19th Century Political Landscape: Republic, Restoration, and Reforms
The First Spanish Republic (1873-1874)
After the abdication of Amadeo I, the Parliament declared the First Spanish Republic. It lasted only nine months and saw four different presidents: Estanislao Figueras, Francisco Pi i Margall, Nicolás Salmerón, and Emilio Castelar. Their time in office was marked by serious challenges.
Challenges of the First Republic
- The Cantonal Movement: This movement proposed the territorial organization of Spain as a federal republic of 17 “states.” In July 1873, independent
Chilean History: Crisis, Political Evolution, and Economic Development
Economic and Social Impact of the 1929 Crisis
- Closure and massive breakdown of nitrate mines and mining industries in the north of the country.
- Increase in unemployment rates, which by 1931 reached a 50% increase.
- Increased migration of workers seeking new jobs to cities in the central and southern regions, particularly Santiago. The arrival of large groups of people exacerbated health problems and urban public health, leading to strong social unrest. The spread of epidemics, hunger, and begging formed