Spain’s Transition: Economy, Society & 1978 Constitution
Spain’s Transition Economy
Looking back at 1973, Spain faced the following economic situation:
- GDP growth stood at 8%.
- The unemployment rate did not exceed 2%.
- Foreign exchange reserves amounted to 6,000 billion Pesetas (Note: currency assumed).
- Inflation was running at 12%.
The underlying reasons for Spain’s economic vulnerability at this time included:
- A relatively closed economy, limiting international trade and competition.
- An inequitable public sector, potentially implying high or poorly structured
Scotland & Ireland: Union, Clearances, Famine, Home Rule Era
Scotland After the Act of Union
- Restrictions on the Highland lifestyle (lifted in 1782).
- Scottish Enlightenment: Adam Smith, David Hume, William Cullen, William Robertson.
- Expansion of trade, banking, and industry.
- The Industrial Revolution (James Watt, a Scot); shipbuilding.
- Development of refrigerated ships: beef from overseas became cheaper than Scottish beef, leading to rural depopulation.
Yet the population grew from 1 million (1700) to 1.5 million (1800) and then to 4.5 million (1900).
Highland Clearances
Read MoreSpain’s Canovist System: Restoration Politics & 1876 Constitution
The Canovist System: Political Restoration
Cánovas del Castillo was a pragmatic, liberal-conservative politician who designed a political system intended to secure the Bourbon throne and prevent power struggles among liberal factions. The Canovist system was based on two fundamental principles:
- The Crown, representing tradition and authority, guaranteeing social order, continuity, and stability.
- The Cortes (Parliament) and liberty, representing the popular will.
Core Principles and Mechanisms
To ensure
Read MoreSpain: Ferdinand VII’s Absolutism & Isabella II’s Ascent
The Ominous Decade (1823-1833)
French Intervention and Repression
At the request of Ferdinand VII and mandated by the Holy Alliance, France intervened in Spain in 1823. The invading army, known as the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis under the command of the Duke of Angoulême, successfully restored Ferdinand VII as an absolute monarch. This task was relatively easy, as the Spanish populace largely did not resist.
Following the restoration, severe repression was unleashed against the Liberals.
Read MoreRussian Revolution: Fall of Tsarism & Rise of the USSR
Russia Under the Last Tsar
In the early twentieth century, Russia maintained an absolute monarchy. The Tsar, the monarch, concentrated the supreme power of the state in his hands. He exercised this power without limit and was supported by the nobility in governing. Although a parliament called the Duma existed, its powers were very limited, as the Tsar could convene or dissolve it at will. There were no political freedoms, and opponents were persecuted by the political police. The economy remained
Read MoreQueen Victoria’s Era: Domestic Ideals and Global Empire
Victorian Women: Angel or Pioneer?
The Ideal: Angel in the House
In 1854, the English poet Coventry Patmore published The Angel in the House, a narrative poem describing an idealised courtship. During the 19th century, the woman was idealized as the ‘angel of the house’, whose duties were to provide moral support to her husband, keep the house tidy, and educate the children. The husband maintained his role as the head of the family, and his duty was to keep his wife out of the workplace. The emblematic
Read More