International Trade, Gold Standard, and Industrial Revolutions

1. The Free Trade Area

Factors such as the diffusion of technological innovations, migration, international capital flow, the increase of foreign trade per capita, and the first economic Globalization (1870-1914) caused the dissemination of industrialization.

There were two kinds of obstacles to international trade:

  • Natural obstacles, like transport means or routes.
  • Institutional obstacles, like the ancient regime or mercantilism.

There are also two theoretical foundations of free trade:

  • The absolute
Read More

Restoration Era: Economic Shifts in Spain

Economic Growth During the Restoration

During the period of the Restoration, new economic activities were developed. Agriculture remained the dominant sector of the economy. The main problem was the ownership structure, mainly in the south, which was in the hands of the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie landowners. Moving northward, the size of properties reduced to smallholdings. The small landlord and the tenant were forced into emigration. The production of cereals fell due to competition from cheap

Read More

Spain’s Democratic Transition and the 1978 Constitution

Defining Spain’s Journey to Democracy

Spain’s transition to democracy signifies the historical period during which the nation moved beyond the dictatorship of General Francisco Franco. This transformation led to governance under a new Constitution, establishing a democratic and social state founded on the rule of law.

Timeline Perspectives

The exact duration of this transition is debated among historians:

  • Some define it as starting with the proclamation of Juan Carlos I as King of Spain on November
Read More

Spain’s Transition to Democracy: Key Events and Constitution of 1978

Spain’s Transition to Democracy and the 1978 Constitution

The first government of the monarchy was chaired by Carlos Arias Navarro. The government began a timid opening to the legalization of political associations, agreed upon in the laws of Franco. The left-wing organizations grouped into two platforms:

Democratic Board

Driven by the PCE, led by Santiago Carrillo.

Platform of Democratic Coordination

Organized around the PSOE, led by Felipe Gonzalez.

(Arias Navarro resigned.) Adolfo Suarez’s Political

Read More

Spain Under Primo de Rivera: A Study of Dictatorship (1923-1930)

The Dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)

On September 13, 1923, Miguel Primo de Rivera issued a manifesto proclaiming the country in a state of war and announcing the advent of a temporary military dictatorship.

Coup and Military Directory (1923-1925)

In 1923, the political situation in Spain seemed to have reached a dead end, marked by political, economic, social, regional, colonial, and military crises. King Alfonso XIII favored the coup. The press, the Church, and the bourgeoisie were

Read More

Utopia in America: Culture, Nationalism, and the American Spirit

Utopia in America

UTOPIA IN AMERICA

Central Theme and Title Significance

The central theme of the essay is the crisis of civilization faced by America as it emerged from colonial independence. This process involved confronting powerful forces, including military and economic power, as well as the spirit through which it sought to overcome barbarity. The author suggests that achieving independence and shaking off colonial oppression allows America to embrace the future. America is portrayed as a new

Read More