Key Eras in Early 20th Century Spanish History
The Crisis of 1898
In 1895, an independence movement erupted in Cuba. In 1898, the United States declared war on Spain following the sinking of the battleship Maine in Havana. The disaster of ’98 came with the Spanish defeat, leading to the frustration of the Spanish political class and the pessimism of intellectuals. From this climate, the intellectual movement known as Regeneracionismo emerged, denouncing the decline of Spain and proposing reforms to overcome it. Its most prominent figure was Joaquín
Read MoreKey Historical Shifts: Religion, Politics, Science
The Protestant Reformation: Causes and Impact
The Protestant Reformation, initiated by Martin Luther in 1517, marked a profound theological division between Roman Catholics and Protestants. Luther asserted that religious authority stemmed from the Bible, not from the Catholic Church or the Pope.
Its primary causes included:
- Abuses within the Catholic Church: Widespread corruption and practices like the sale of indulgences.
- Shifting Worldview: The influence of Renaissance thought fostered new perspectives.
Spain’s Revolutionary Six Years and Monarchy Restoration
Spain’s Revolutionary Six Years (1868-1874)
The 1868 Revolution and Provisional Government
Federalists and Republicans sought significant changes, including regime alteration, the abolition of the quintas (forced military conscription), the abolition of slavery, and laws protecting workers.
The Cortes framed the Constitution of 1869, which established principles such as:
- National sovereignty with a constitutional monarchy
- Declaration of individual rights
- Bicameral legislature
- Executive power vested in
Understanding the Cold War Era
The Cold War: Defining an Era
The Cold War was an ideological, political, economic, and military conflict between the capitalist bloc, led by the USA, and the communist bloc, led by the USSR. It spanned from 1945 (the end of WWII) to 1991 (the collapse of the USSR). It was termed ‘Cold’ because the level of direct violence in Europe and North America was lower compared to previous years, but it was very harmful in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The two superpowers largely avoided direct confrontation.
Read MoreKey Eras in World History: Conflicts, Revolutions, and Transformations
The Peloponnesian War: An Early Total Conflict
The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta is seen as an early example of total war, affecting all of society. Thucydides, a key historian, used empirical, objective methods and saw war as a test of civilization. Pericles’ Funeral Oration praised Athenian democracy and civic virtue. The concept of total war was formalized by Ludendorff in 1935, but Thucydides already captured its essence. Aristotle argued history is not a science
Read More19th Century Global Transformations: Key Historical Events
The Congress of Vienna: Creation & Objectives
After Napoleon’s defeat and exile to the island of Saint Helena, the victorious countries met at the Congress of Vienna.
At the meeting, the following objectives were proposed:
- Restore absolutism under a new name: legitimism. Kings were considered the only legitimate rulers.
- Create an alliance, called the Holy Alliance, between the absolutist monarchs to protect them from any attempted revolutions.
- Restore the boundaries on the map of Europe, which had