Key Eras in World History: Conflicts, Revolutions, and Transformations
The Peloponnesian War: An Early Total Conflict
The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta is seen as an early example of total war, affecting all of society. Thucydides, a key historian, used empirical, objective methods and saw war as a test of civilization. Pericles’ Funeral Oration praised Athenian democracy and civic virtue. The concept of total war was formalized by Ludendorff in 1935, but Thucydides already captured its essence. Aristotle argued history is not a science
Read More19th Century Global Transformations: Key Historical Events
The Congress of Vienna: Creation & Objectives
After Napoleon’s defeat and exile to the island of Saint Helena, the victorious countries met at the Congress of Vienna.
At the meeting, the following objectives were proposed:
- Restore absolutism under a new name: legitimism. Kings were considered the only legitimate rulers.
- Create an alliance, called the Holy Alliance, between the absolutist monarchs to protect them from any attempted revolutions.
- Restore the boundaries on the map of Europe, which had
Spanish Political Dynamics: Republicanism, Carlism, and Cuba (1876-1898)
The Evolution of Spanish Republicanism
Divisions and Adaptations Post-First Republic
Following the failure of the First Spanish Republic, Republicans found themselves deeply divided into various factions. This continuous reorganization of forces and events significantly diminished the effectiveness of their electoral support and political programs. The quickest to adapt to the new political conditions was the old republican leader Emilio Castelar, who founded the Posibilista Republican Party. This
Read MoreUnraveling Medieval & Renaissance History: Core Concepts
The Great Schism: Church Division & Impact
The Great Schism refers to the split within the Christian Church that occurred when both a French pope and an Italian pope declared each other to be a false pope. This conflict significantly diminished the power of the Church, as the popes’ disorganization hindered their ability to effectively combat crises like the Bubonic Plague. For instance, many lives were lost because the Church leadership was not unified in its efforts to help the populace. In
Read MoreVictorian England: Economic Power and Political Reforms
ENGLAND: Economic and Territorial Power. The reign of Victoria I (1837-1901), known as the Victorian era, saw the UK reach its greatest territorial expansion and consolidate its industrial development. It maintained traditional institutions and a parliamentary monarchy, advancing towards a democratic system. The country was not significantly affected by liberal revolutions; political developments occurred within a framework of institutional stability. The economic expansion was impacted by a prolonged
Read MoreRoman Impact on Britain and the English Language
English is not the native language of England. It was introduced by Germanic tribes who invaded Britain in successive waves. Around the mid-fifth century, the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes drove back the Britons, who were Celts. Celtic is the only substratum that Germanic peoples could find apart from Latin.
During the Old English period (c. 450-1150), the language came into contact with three other languages: those of the Celts, the Romans, and the Scandinavians. This section will focus on the significant