The Restoration in Spain: Political System and Social Change (1875-1890)
Introduction
The Revolution of 1868 and the brief republican regime failed to establish political stability, culminating in 1875 with the start of the “Restoration”: the reign of Alfonso XII (1875-1885), son of Isabella II, and the regency of his wife, Maria Cristina. This period saw the return of some features of the pre-democratic Sexenio, particularly the political dominance of an elite composed of leaders from the major parties, heirs to the old moderate and progressive groups, now called “conservative”
Read MoreFrench Revolution: A Summary of its Causes, Stages, and Impact
1. Summary of the French Revolution
Causes of the Revolution
- Deep economic crisis of 1789
- Crop production issues
- Political marginalization of the bourgeoisie
- Monarchy’s financial crisis due to state and court costs
- Tax reform and aristocratic privilege
The French Revolution began with an aristocratic revolt against taxation. Louis XVI convened the Estates-General in 1789, comprised of the nobility, clergy, and the Third Estate. The Third Estate demanded double representation and voting by individual,
Read MoreFranco’s Dictatorship (1939-1959): Construction and Consolidation
Franco’s Dictatorship (1939-1959)
Introduction
The Spanish Civil War’s end in 1939 consolidated Franco’s dictatorial regime, established in October 1936. This regime lasted until Franco’s death in 1975. Throughout its nearly forty years, the Franco regime remained a harsh dictatorship marked by fierce repression. However, its institutions evolved and adapted. The regime is broadly divided into two phases. The first, lasting until approximately 1959, focused on establishing a totalitarian state inspired
Read MoreArmed Peace & WWI: Alliances, Conflicts, and Global Aftermath
Armed Peace (1890-1914)
A system of alliances formed between Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Italy, initially intended to isolate France and maintain balance in the Balkans. This period saw the emergence of two major power blocs:
- Triple Entente: France, Great Britain, and Russia.
- Triple Alliance: Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Germany.
Colonial claims led to two crises in Morocco (1905-1911). The Eastern Question arose as Russia supported Bulgaria and Serbia to prevent them from falling under
Read MoreVenezuela’s First Republic (1810-1812)
First Republic of Venezuela (1810-1812)
The First Republic of Venezuela refers to the historical period between 1810 and 1812. It began on April 19, 1810, when a Supreme Council in Caracas dismissed Captain General Vicente Emparan, established a Congress, and declared independence on July 5, 1811. The territory was called the States of Venezuela.
With the declaration of independence, the Republican campaigns, and the War of Independence, the Republic ultimately fell on July 25, 1812. This occurred
Read MoreWorld War I: The Rise and Fall of Empires
The Armed Peace
Germany’s Rise to Power
After unification, Germany became a leading power in international politics. Chancellor Bismarck’s system of alliances with Austria, Russia, and Italy aimed to isolate France (as revenge for the loss of Alsace and Lorraine) and maintain balance in the Balkans.
The Dismissal of Bismarck and the Rise of Imperialism
Following the death of Emperor William I, William II ascended to the throne. His expansionist policies led to Bismarck’s dismissal and a new era of imperialism.
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