The Restoration Era (1815-1848): Principles, Congress of Vienna, and Revolutions
The Restoration Era (1815-1830)
The Restoration, spanning 1815-1830, followed Napoleon’s downfall and saw the return of absolute monarchy. The 1815 Congress of Vienna brought together Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria to establish peace and order. This period witnessed counter-revolutionary waves in 1820, 1830, and 1848.
Principles of the Restoration
- Legitimacy: Restoration of the throne to its rightful owner, leading to absolute monarchy.
- Equilibrium: European balance of power, preventing any
17th Century Spain: Habsburg Rule & Crisis
Seventeenth-Century Spain
Habsburg Rule and Internal Conflicts
Throughout the 17th century, Spain was ruled by the Habsburg monarchs Philip III (1598-1621), Philip IV (1621-1665), and Charles II (1665-1700). These kings relied heavily on validos (royal favorites) to govern, leading to political instability and public distrust. Philip III’s valido, the Duke of Lerma, and his successor, the Duke of Uceda, prioritized personal gain and nepotism. This era witnessed the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1609.
Read MoreSpain During World War II and the Franco Regime
Jurisdiction of the Spanish State (1939-1975)
Spain During World War II
Generalissimo Francisco Franco, the Head of State and leader of the single party (FET y de las JONS), held the power to approve decree-laws without prior government deliberation. This effectively granted him legislative control, fostering a cult of personality and a providential image (“Francisco Franco, Caudillo of Spain by the grace of God”).
From the outset, Franco consolidated the state under the doctrines of the “National
Read MoreNationalism, Imperialism, and the Second Industrial Revolution in Europe
Item 5: Nationalism and Imperialism
1. French Unification
In 1851, the President of the Republic, Louis Bonaparte, staged a coup and appointed himself emperor, taking the name Napoleon III. The Bonapartist regime was a synthesis of liberalism and order, based on an aggressive foreign policy. Napoleon intervened in several crises involving the Great Powers:
- He participated in the Crimean War to limit Russian expansion in the Black Sea.
- He intervened in Italy, supporting Piedmont but later preventing
Spain from 1959 to 1975: Development and Stagnation
Economic Development, Social Change, and Political Stagnation (1959-1973)
Background: The period began with protests by workers and university students due to famine and inflation, which prompted political and economic changes. The new government, formed by members of the OPUS, was classified as technocratic and moved away from traditional politicians and the Falange. These technocrats received financial support from the USA, which aimed to establish a liberal capitalist, anti-inflationary economy,
Read MoreThe Second Spanish Republic (1931-1933): Reforms and Challenges
The Second Spanish Republic (1931-1933)
The Configuration of the New Regime
Following the Pact of San Sebastián, the provisional government called for elections to the Constituent Cortes on June 28, 1931. The government also promulgated a series of decrees to undertake urgent reforms.
Largo Caballero, socialist and labor minister, issued decrees affecting farm workers, including:
- Equalizing minimum agricultural wages with industrial wages
- Establishing the eight-hour workday in the fields
- Implementing