Philip II’s Foreign Policy and the European Old Regime Era
Philip II’s Foreign Policy and European Dominance
Philip II’s reign was marked by significant foreign policy challenges and triumphs that solidified Spain’s position as a dominant European power.
France
Pope Paul IV allied with France, aiming to expel the Spanish from Naples. However, the decisive Spanish victory at the Battle of Saint-Quentin and the subsequent Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559 ended this confrontation. This treaty established Spain as the hegemonic and most powerful country in Europe.
Read MoreSpain’s 19th Century: Crisis, Liberalism, and Conflict
The Crisis of the Bourbon Monarchy
Carlos IV and the Napoleonic Era
The crisis of the Bourbon monarchy began with the reaction of the monarchy of Carlos IV against Revolutionary France. War was declared in 1793, lasting until 1795. This conflict proved to be a failure, leading Manuel Godoy to make a sharp turn in foreign policy. Soon, Napoleon gained influence, authorizing the French army to pass through Spain to attack Portugal. This provoked the outbreak of the Mutiny of Aranjuez in 1808.
Faced with
Read MoreHabsburg Spain: Charles I, Philip II, and the Americas
The Reign of Charles I (Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor)
Accession and Internal Challenges
In 1517, King Charles I, grandson of the Catholic Monarchs, ascended to the throne, initiating a new dynasty: the House of Austria. His primary ambition was to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor, a goal he achieved. However, this ambition sparked significant discontent in Hispanic lands.An insurrection, known as the Revolt of the Comuneros, broke out in the Crown of Castile, but its forces were defeated at Villalar.
Read MoreSpain’s Restoration Era: Monarchy, Politics, and Society
Restoration: The Return to Constitutional Monarchy
King Alfonso XII, son of Isabel II, was proclaimed king in 1874, marking the beginning of the Restoration. The new king supported a constitutional monarchy and appointed Canovas del Castillo as chairman of the government. Canovas was instrumental in the return of the Bourbons to the throne. He ended the war in Cuba and the Carlist War. The political system was based on two pillars: a new constitution and the alternation of parties in power.
The Tiempo
Read MoreOrigins of World War I: Imperialism, Nationalism, and Global Rivalries
Imperialism and Pre-War Tensions
The Moroccan Crises
The Berlin Conference of 1885 had attempted to establish measures and arbitration agreements between the empires, but as new countries emerged, conflict erupted again. Hostilities between rival imperialists were particularly evident in North Africa, specifically the area of Morocco. The First Moroccan Crisis occurred in 1905. The German government offered its support to the Sultan of Morocco, hoping he could withstand French pressure. To resolve
Read MoreFrom Francoism to Democracy: Spain’s Constitutional Journey
Spain’s Transition to Democracy (1975-1978)
Franco died on November 20, 1975. This marked the end of a dictatorship lasting almost 40 years and initiated a period of transition to democracy, the first chapter of which was the proclamation of Juan Carlos I as King of Spain.
The prime minister was Carlos Arias, a Francoist who frustrated democratizing expectations. In early 1976, the situation was critical: Spain was experiencing a severe economic crisis, followed by a strong wave of strikes.
The King
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