Spain’s Political Leaders: Franco Era to Democracy
Key Figures in Spain’s Modern Political History
Manuel Gutiérrez Mellado
A Lieutenant General and a key military figure during Spain’s transition to democracy. As First Vice President of the Government for Defense Affairs (appointed by Adolfo Suárez in 1976), he played a crucial role in military reforms, including repealing the outdated military ordinances of Carlos III and replacing them with new ones. He is famously remembered for his courageous confrontation with Lieutenant Colonel Antonio Tejero
Read MoreFrench Revolution: Causes, Events & Radical Change
The French Revolution: A Turning Point
In 1789, a historical process developed in France that destroyed the economic and social foundations of the Old Regime and eliminated the absolute monarchy. The ideas that drove the French Revolution influenced subsequent liberal and socialist revolutionary movements.
Seeds of Revolt: Pre-Revolutionary France
France was a country grappling with significant social conflict and a monarchical state in crisis. The French state suffered from a severe financial crisis,
Read MoreSpain’s Restoration: Cánovas, Alfonso XII & 1876 Constitution
The Spanish Restoration System (1874-1923)
The Cánovas System, 1876 Constitution & Party Dynamics
Antonio Cánovas del Castillo began preparing for the monarchy’s restoration by founding circles, creating supportive groups, and using press propaganda for the Bourbons’ return. Alfonso XII was presented to the public through the Sandhurst Manifesto. Following the pronunciamiento of Martínez Campos at Sagunto, Alfonso XII was proclaimed King of Spain. This appointment, positioning him as a peacemaker,
Read MoreIberian Peninsula: Early Hominids, Al-Andalus, Reconquista
Hominization Process in the Iberian Peninsula
Prehistory: A period spanning from the appearance of the first human ancestors until the invention of writing. It is divided into the Paleolithic, Neolithic, and Metal Ages. This period includes the process of hominization.
Hominid: A representative of the biological family related to Homo sapiens. Hominids split from other primates in Africa approximately 8.1 million years ago.
The chronology of the oldest human settlement in the Iberian Peninsula and
Read MoreWorld War I: Causes, Alliances, and Post-War Treaties
The Road to WWI: Key Factors
Underlying Causes of the Great War
Several key factors contributed to the outbreak of World War I:
- Germany’s Rise: The emergence of Germany as a major power was perceived as a threat by established powers like France, the United Kingdom, and Russia.
- Territorial Rivalries:
- Conflict between Germany and France over the regions of Alsace and Lorraine.
- Tensions between Austria-Hungary and Italy concerning Italian-speaking territories under Austrian rule (e.g., Istria, Trieste).
France 1789: Social Tensions & Revolutionary Dawn
France in 1789: An Absolute Monarchy
In 1789, France, under King Louis XVI, was an absolute monarchy and one of Europe’s wealthiest and most powerful nations. Under the Ancien Régime, the king shared power and prerogatives with the first two privileged classes, or estates: the nobility and the clergy.
The Privileged Estates: Nobility and Clergy
The nobility, the Second Estate, by heritage from medieval times, owned vast lands and held the highest positions in the church, government, and army. Their
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