Spain’s Turbulent Sexenio: Regency, Republic & Cuba

The Regency of Serrano (1869-1871)

The Constitution of 1869

A moderately sized text with 112 articles, it was influenced by the Belgian Constitution of 1831 and the U.S. Constitution of 1787. Its preamble affirmed national sovereignty originating from the people (soberanía nacional) and proclaimed the separation of powers.

Key aspects included:

  • Regulation of all individual rights.
  • Establishment of universal male suffrage.
  • Creation of a bicameral system (two legislative chambers).
  • Royal powers similar
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Spain’s Progressive Biennium Reforms 1932-1933

Progressive-Reformist Biennium (1932-1933)

During this biennium, a progressive policy of reforms was initiated to address the serious problems affecting Spain:

Military Reform

  • Professionalization and democratization of the army (reducing divisions).
  • Azaña Law (Law of Retirement of the Officer Corps): Allowed officers early retirement with full pay.
  • Suppression of the Captaincies General.
  • Creation of the Assault Guard (Guardia de Asalto), a police force loyal to the Republic.
  • Subjection of military jurisdiction
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Captain Alatriste: Danger and Intrigue in 17th Century Madrid

Captain Alatriste: Madrid Intrigues and Encounters

IV. The Ambush

It was time to end the lives of the Englishmen. On a Friday in March, late at night, a dim light illuminated the place chosen for the ambush. The wait seemed interminable, but the time finally came. Alatriste and the Italian assassin Malatesta launched themselves upon the Englishmen. Malatesta was about to deliver the mortal blow to one of them but was prevented by Alatriste. He saved the Englishman’s life, disobeying the orders of

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Key Treaties & Conferences of the Interwar Period (1920s-1930s)

Washington Naval Conference (1921-22)

Japan began building battleships, alarming the USA due to their proximity. The treaty limited the Japanese navy to three-fifths the size of the US Navy.

Genoa Conference (1922)

This conference was a failure. Germany requested more time to pay reparations, but France refused, needing the money.

Rapallo Treaty (1922)

Germany and the USSR signed this treaty, becoming allies. Germany could rebuild its military in Russian territory and train Russian troops to German standards.
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Cold War: Origins, Key Events, and Global Impact

The Cold War: A Global Confrontation

The Cold War was a political, ideological, economic, technological, and military confrontation that took place during the twentieth century between the Western-capitalist blocs, led by the United States, and the Eastern-communist blocs, led by the Soviet Union. China subsequently separated to create its own sphere of influence.

The blocs did not directly engage in armed conflict. The U.S. defended capitalist politics, claiming to represent democracy and freedom.

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Victorian Era Reforms and the Second French Empire

19th Century Political and Social Changes

British Political Reforms

From the mid-nineteenth century, political life in Britain was largely controlled by two parties: the Tories (Conservatives) and Whigs (Liberals). A significant early reform was the extension of the franchise in 1832.

Conservative Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli introduced electoral reform in 1867, extending democratic voting rights to over one million citizens. However, this reform primarily connected the right to vote to property

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