Rise of the Romanovs: Tsars, Expansion, and Reforms
1. Introduction: The Romanov Dynasty
The Romanovs ruled as Russian tsars from 1613 to 1917. The dynasty’s origins trace back to the early 17th century, following the Time of Troubles, a period marked by civil wars and usurpations after the direct line of Ivan the Great ended. A national assembly convened in Moscow in 1613 elected Michael Fedorovich Romanov, a descendant of a Lithuanian nobleman, Ivan Kambila, who immigrated to Moscow in the early 14th century. Michael’s selection marked the beginning
Read MoreJean-Jacques Rousseau: Life, Philosophy, and Impact
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Life and Times
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was born in Geneva, Switzerland, and raised by his father and aunt after his mother’s early death. In 1742, he moved to Paris and befriended Enlightenment thinkers. He contributed to Diderot’s Encyclopedia and gained recognition for his Discourse on the Sciences and the Arts (1750), which won the Dijon Academy’s prize. His subsequent works, Discourse on the Origin of Inequality Among Men (1755) and The Social Contract (1762),
Read MoreSpanish American Wars of Independence: A History
The Emancipation of Spanish America
Causes of Independence
The Creoles, descendants of Spanish settlers born in the Americas, controlled estates, plantations, and a small manufacturing sector. Representing 10-15% of the population, they held significant social and economic power. Indigenous people, mestizos, and enslaved Africans constituted a largely exploited peasant and mining class under Spanish and Creole rule. Spaniards held all major public offices, including viceroys and presidents of the
Read More19th Century European Revolutions and Unification
Revolutions and Unifications of 19th Century Europe
Revolution of 1848
The Revolution of 1848 was fueled by the rise of liberalism and national aspirations, coupled with the social unrest caused by early industrialization. Economic difficulties, the potato famine of 1845-1846, poor grain harvests, and rising prices shook Europe. The industrial crisis had specific consequences in Paris. Manufacturers and wholesalers, unable to export their products, faced competition from large stores that ruined small
Read MoreWorld War I & Imperialism: Causes, Impacts, and Key Events
World War I (1914-1919)
Causes of the War
Tensions had been brewing since the late 19th century, culminating in the outbreak of World War I. Several factors contributed to this conflict:
- Rise of Nationalism and Imperialism: Intense rivalry between European powers like France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, the United Kingdom, and Russia fueled a system of defensive alliances.
- Alliance Systems: Two major alliances emerged: the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy) and the Triple Entente (
19th Century Colonial Imperialism: Causes, Expansion, and Administration
What is Imperialism?
Imperialism is the expansion of a state beyond its borders to dominate other areas, which are called colonies. These colonies are subjected to and exploited by a power, which is called the metropolis. Nineteenth-century colonial imperialism identified two distinct parts: the metropolis and its colonies, which were at its service. This imperialist model established political dependence by the colonies, used to optimize the use of natural and human resources existing in the controlled
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