America’s Great Depression & Roosevelt’s New Deal Legacy
The Great Depression: An American Crisis
Seeds of Economic Turmoil
The industrialization process in the United States started after the Civil War. Between the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, American economic expansion was at its peak. However, this economic growth ended with the Great Depression, which began as a financial crisis in Wall Street in 1929.
The Depths of the Depression
The Great Depression was the worst economic downturn in the history of the industrialized
Read MoreSpain’s Second Republic: Formation, Reforms & Turmoil
The Second Spanish Republic: Dawn and Foundation
Social and Political Underpinnings
When King Alfonso XIII abdicated and left Spain, a provisional government was established, proclaiming the Second Spanish Republic on April 14, 1931. This government aimed to reflect the agreements reached at the Pact of San Sebastián. Key political forces supporting the new republic included the Radical Party, Radical Socialists, Socialists, and regionalist groups like the Catalan Esquerra and Galician ORGA (Organización
Read MorePath to WWI: Alliances, Crises, and Balkan Tensions
Pre-WWI: European Alliances & Rising Tensions
The Shifting European Alliances
Germany was the first major power to begin practicing a policy of alliances, primarily to isolate France. This led to a complex web of treaties across Europe:
- The League of Three Emperors: Signed between Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary, this league was weakened by clashes between Russia and Austria-Hungary over control of the Balkans. Russia, encouraging the independent aspirations of Slavic peoples within the Turkish
Bourbon Reforms: 18th Century Spanish State & Society
The New Bourbon State in Spain
The domestic policy of the Bourbons differed significantly from that of their predecessors. The assertion of state power necessary for these reforms was also intended to bolster Spain’s influence in international affairs.
During the eighteenth century, notable intellectuals emerged to take charge of reform projects. Their names are well known: Feijoo, Mayans, Campomanes, Jovellanos, etc. However, this intellectual movement, though representing a minority of the population,
Read MoreSpain’s Second Republic: Formation & 1931 Constitution
The Second Spanish Republic: Genesis & Early Days
On April 12, 1931, municipal elections took place in Spain with a participation rate of 66.9% of eligible male voters over 25 years old. These elections were widely interpreted as a referendum on the monarchy. Anti-monarchist candidates—representing parties such as the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party), radical parties, various Republican groups, and Basque and Catalan nationalists—achieved significant victories, winning in 41 out of
Read MoreSpain’s Political Arena: Early 20th Century Reforms & Factions
Spanish Political Arena: Early 20th Century Reforms & Factions
Government Reforms and Social Policies
Initially, the government aimed to limit the Church’s power. This involved reforming its funding, as the Church still received salaries that the government attempted to cut. The Padlock Law was also created, designed to prevent new religious orders from establishing themselves in Spain if they were not to the Church’s liking.
Regarding social policy, a significant measure was the law to abolish
Read More