The American and French Revolutions: Birth of Modern Democracies
The Independence of the United States
The Thirteen Colonies
The first English settlers arrived in North America in 1607 and established their first colony: Virginia. By the middle of the 18th century, there were already thirteen colonies, often collectively referred to as New England.
The population of North America included approximately 1,300,000 white people of European origin, whose social differences were generally lower than those in Europe, and 350,000 black people, mainly slaves, who worked
Read MoreThe Fall of Franco: Opposition Movements and the End of the Dictatorship (1939–1975)
Opposition to the Franco Regime
Postwar Opposition (1939–1959)
After the war, opposition groups, primarily driven by the PCE (Spanish Communist Party), continued their activities. The Maquis operated between 1944 and 1949, hiding in major mountain ranges. They attempted to incite the population against Franco and even prepared an invasion from France through the Aran Valley, hoping for support from democratic nations. This invasion ultimately failed, and the groups were dismantled by 1949. Political
Read MoreThe Rise of Liberalism: European Political Transformation (17th–19th C)
English Parliamentarism: Origins and Evolution
English Parliamentarism was the most progressive system of the 16th century, important because of its influence on enlightened political ideas. Its roots can be traced back to the Anglo-Saxon ‘Witenagamot’ and the advisory council of the Norman Kings, the ‘Curia Regis’. That Curia evolved to become the English Parliament, where the dominant groups, the Aristocracy and Clergy, intervened beside the King in the government of the nation. The first key point
Read MoreEuropean History: Revolutions, Empires, and Social Change
The Ancien Régime: State-Based Society
The social structure of the Ancien Régime was divided into three distinct estates:
First Estate: Nobility
The nobility held the highest status. They were wealthy, powerful, and typically lived in castles or large estates. They received income and privileges but were exempt from paying taxes.
Second Estate: Clergy
The clergy were also privileged. They often lived in cities and wielded significant power due to the populace’s religious belief and the Church’s influence.
Key Concepts of the Cold War and Decolonization History
Understanding Post-War Global History
The Brezhnev Doctrine Defined
The Brezhnev Doctrine was a policy established by the Soviet Union in 1968. It asserted that the USSR could use military force to prevent any communist country from deviating from communism. This justification was notably used to send troops to Czechoslovakia during the Prague Spring. The primary goal was to maintain absolute control over Eastern Europe.
The Cuban Missile Crisis and Its Main Outcome
In 1962, the United States discovered
Read MoreSpain’s 19th Century: From Revolution to Restoration
The Progressive Biennium and the Liberal Union
The Progressive Biennium, led by Espartero, was supported by a centrist party sponsored by O’Donnell called the Liberal Union, which integrated moderate progressives and conservatives. The new government launched a confiscation of church lands and adopted the Law of Railways. It was a period of crises and social agitation with many protests. This was the reason the queen gave for removing the progressives from government. Between 1856 and 1866, the government
Read More