Spain’s Restoration Era: Monarchy, Politics, and Society
Restoration: The Return to Constitutional Monarchy
King Alfonso XII, son of Isabel II, was proclaimed king in 1874, marking the beginning of the Restoration. The new king supported a constitutional monarchy and appointed Canovas del Castillo as chairman of the government. Canovas was instrumental in the return of the Bourbons to the throne. He ended the war in Cuba and the Carlist War. The political system was based on two pillars: a new constitution and the alternation of parties in power.
The Tiempo
Read MoreOrigins of World War I: Imperialism, Nationalism, and Global Rivalries
Imperialism and Pre-War Tensions
The Moroccan Crises
The Berlin Conference of 1885 had attempted to establish measures and arbitration agreements between the empires, but as new countries emerged, conflict erupted again. Hostilities between rival imperialists were particularly evident in North Africa, specifically the area of Morocco. The First Moroccan Crisis occurred in 1905. The German government offered its support to the Sultan of Morocco, hoping he could withstand French pressure. To resolve
Read MoreFrom Francoism to Democracy: Spain’s Constitutional Journey
Spain’s Transition to Democracy (1975-1978)
Franco died on November 20, 1975. This marked the end of a dictatorship lasting almost 40 years and initiated a period of transition to democracy, the first chapter of which was the proclamation of Juan Carlos I as King of Spain.
The prime minister was Carlos Arias, a Francoist who frustrated democratizing expectations. In early 1976, the situation was critical: Spain was experiencing a severe economic crisis, followed by a strong wave of strikes.
The King
Read MoreCadiz Constitution of 1812: Origins, Impact, and Legacy
The Courts of Cadiz and the Constitution of 1812
The 1812 Constitution (or Cadiz Constitution) was the fundamental rule drafted by the Spanish Courts gathered on the island of Leon, under siege by the French. It leaned towards liberalism and was known as “La Pepa” because it was approved on the day of St. Joseph.
The Cadiz Constitution was enacted by the Regency on March 19, 1812, revoked by the king on May 4, 1814, and restored in 1820 by Gen. Riego. In 1823, the French army, the “Hundred Thousand
Read MoreThe Cold War Era: Origins, Conflicts, and Global Impact
Post-World War II Global Landscape
U.S.A. and U.S.S.R.: Rising Tensions
Following World War II, mutual distrust grew between the United States of America (U.S.A.) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.), leading to a significant military and nuclear build-up.
Ideological Divide: Capitalism vs. Communism
Profound differences emerged between the victorious powers. The United Kingdom and the U.S.A. championed democratic and capitalist systems, while the U.S.S.R. established a communist state.
Read MoreSpain’s 1898 Crisis: The Spanish-American War and Its Impact
Spain’s Colonial Empire and the 1898 Crisis
Between 1814 and 1824, under King Ferdinand VII, Spain lost much of its colonial empire, retaining only Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and some Pacific islands. These remaining territories were lost in 1898, a year often referred to as ‘the Disaster.’ Spain’s colonial policy aimed to retain these overseas possessions. While Cuba provided significant economic benefits, Cubans were treated as second-class citizens. Madrid’s restrictive trade policies,
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