Reign of Isabella II: Rise of the Liberal State in Spain
Reign of Isabella II: Creation of the Liberal State
Introduction
The reign of Isabella II (1833-1868) witnessed the creation and consolidation of the liberal state in Spain, transforming the absolute monarchy into a parliamentary system. This transition, part of a broader process of change, accelerated during Isabella’s rule. The backdrop includes the introduction of the New Regime during the War of Independence, its fluctuations under Ferdinand VII, and the ensuing Carlist Wars. The regent María
Read MoreSpanish Second Republic: The Reform Biennium (1931-1933)
The Reform Biennium (1931-1933)
Development
The newly formed government (1931-33) consisted of the politically inexperienced petty bourgeoisie, representing the unified democratic forces opposing the monarchy. This coalition included republicans, nationalists, and socialists. One of their first actions was drafting a new constitution to establish the new political regime. President and head of government, Alcalá Zamora, faced the challenge of addressing Spain’s problems. However, the government’
Read MoreSpanish Civil War: Causes, Key Events, and Aftermath
The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
Causes of the Conflict
The Spanish Civil War was a complex conflict with deep roots. The rise to power of the Popular Front, a left-wing coalition, in the 1936 elections heightened existing tensions. Underlying social and economic problems, including widespread hunger due to agricultural underproduction, further fueled discontent. Peripheral nationalisms, demanding greater autonomy, clashed with the central government and the army. Religious divisions, with anti-
Read More19th & 20th Century Economic & Social Change in Spain
Economic and Social Change in Spain
Economic Shifts in the 19th and 20th Centuries
During the 19th century, European economies underwent significant transformations. Industry replaced agriculture as the primary economic activity. Mechanization and energy use revolutionized production methods, while private property became further consolidated. Spain experienced these changes but did not fully industrialize, remaining predominantly agrarian in the late 19th century.
The early 20th century saw global
Read MoreSpain’s 16th Century: Mediterranean Dominance, Portuguese Union, and English Conflicts
The Dominance of the Mediterranean
The Ottoman Empire became a major power in the eastern Mediterranean after occupying Constantinople in 1542, renaming it Istanbul and establishing it as their capital. The Ottomans aimed to expand into Central Europe, besieging Vienna in 1529, and into the Western Mediterranean. Barbary pirates, such as Red Beard, attacked coastal towns, plundering for loot and capturing slaves. Charles I successfully attacked Tunisia in 1535, but failed to conquer Algiers in
Read MorePolitical Revolutions of 1776-1848: A Historical Overview
Theme 2: Political Revolutions (1776-1848)
1. The American Revolution
The Origins of the Conflict
In the 18th century, Britain held thirteen colonies in eastern North America. The American Revolution stemmed from conflict between these settlers and Great Britain, culminating in the colonies’ independence.
The conflict’s core was economic. Britain aimed to extract raw materials from North America. The colonies operated under the Colonial Pact, granting them considerable autonomy. While expected to pay
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