Lipid and Nitrogen Metabolism: Pathways and Regulation
Saponifiable and Unsaponifiable Lipids
Saponifiable lipids are hydrolyzed under basic conditions and include:
- Fatty acids
- Acylglycerols
- Phosphoglycerides
- Sphingolipids
- Waxes
Unsaponifiable lipids do not contain fatty acids in their structure. These include:
- Terpenes
- Steroids
- Eicosanoids
Complex and Simple Lipids
Complex lipids are hydrolyzed into various components, such as:
- Acylglycerides
- Phosphoglycerides
- Sphingolipids
- Waxes
Simple lipids consist of one structural unit:
- Fatty acids
- Terpenoids
- Eicosanoids
- Steroids
Lipoprotein
Read MoreNutrient Analysis, Obesity, and Health Risks
Nutrient Analysis
Protein Analysis
Proteins are usually assessed for nitrogen content using the Kjeldahl method. This is a universally accepted method, but a source of inaccuracy. The N protein is not exclusively determined, there is no difference between proteins of different biological quality or bioavailability, and specific coefficients are known only for some foods.
Fiber Analysis
Classification by solubility:
- Insoluble: Cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin
- Soluble: Pectins, hemicellulose, gums, mucilages
Analytical
Read MoreNutrition in Kidney Disease: Impact on Renal Failure and Stones
Nutritional Requirements in Kidney Disease
Proteins
This is a subject of controversy. A higher protein intake may not promote a positive nitrogen balance and may result in higher levels of urea.
- 0.5 to 0.8 g/kg for patients not on dialysis
- 1.0 to 2.0 g/kg for those on dialysis
Keeping urea levels <100 mg/dL
Vitamins
- Avoid vitamin A supplements.
- Vitamin C: 30-50 mg/day
- Requirements of K, E, D, B6, and folate are increased in acute renal failure (ARF) and require supplements.
Acute Renal Failure
First Stage
The
Read MoreMolecular Heredity: Carbon, Carbohydrates, and Proteins
Molecular Basis of Heredity
Carbon: The majority of the primary constituents of organisms are composed of carbon atoms. Carbon forms almost 18% of living matter. Compounds that have carbon are called organic compounds. In nature, carbon is associated with hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), and oxygen (O). It has a valency of 4. The organic compounds are found in cells and tissues, affect metabolism, and are a source of energy in biological processes. Carbon has two reasons to form a variety of compounds:
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Endocrine System: Hormones, Glands, and Functions
Hormone Classification and Function
The endocrine system comprises various glands that secrete hormones, which are chemical messengers that regulate numerous bodily functions. Hormones can be classified based on their chemical structure and solubility:
- Lipid-soluble hormones (steroids, thyroid hormones, nitric oxide): These hormones are bound to transport proteins in the blood and bind to receptors within target cells.
- Water-soluble hormones (amines,
Meal Planning for Diabetics: Nutrition and Dietary Insights
Methods for Planning Meals for Diabetics
Nutrition Guidelines
Nutrition guidelines are booklets that provide general guidelines for planning an adequate diet. They may contain a section for making healthy food choices, exchange lists, and images of types and quantities of food.
Menus
A menu is a description of the dishes for each day over a period of time (breakfast, lunch, dinner, and snacks).
Exchange Lists
Exchange lists cluster food in measures that provide roughly the same number of calories and
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