Fundamentals of English Phonetics and Phonology
1. Key Concepts
- Phonetics: The physical study of speech sounds (production, transmission, perception).
Example: Studying how /p/ is produced with the lips. - Phonology: The study of how sounds function in a language system.
Example: /p/ vs /b/ distinguishes meaning in pat vs bat. - Grapheme: A written symbol representing a sound.
Example: The grapheme “sh” represents the sound /ʃ/ in ship. - Phoneme: The smallest sound unit that changes meaning.
Example: /ɪ/ vs /iː/ in ship (/ʃɪp/) vs sheep (/ʃiːp/
British Political Transformation: Stuarts, Hanoverians, Empire
Origins of Modern British Politics
Early Political Parties
The modern concept of political parties formed from the ashes of the Cavaliers and Roundheads. The Cavaliers evolved into the Tory Party, royalists intent on preserving the king’s authority, while the Roundheads transformed into the Whig Party, men of property dedicated to expanding trade abroad.
The Glorious Revolution and Succession
Reign of James II (1633-1701)
James II, Stuart King of England, Scotland, and Ireland, was overthrown in 1688
Read MoreEnglish Syntax: Phrase Structure, Verbs & Function Words
Understanding Syntactic Structures
The key to analyzing standard sentence structures (syntax trees):
- Complement: A phrase required by a Head to complete its meaning (Forms X’ with Head).
- Adjunct: A phrase modifying an X’ category, resulting in another X’ category. Adjuncts can typically be removed without affecting the grammatical sense of the core phrase.
- Specifier: A phrase combining with an X’ category to form a maximal projection (XP).
Saxon Genitive (‘s)
Structure: Specifier + ‘s + Complement
Verb
Read MoreScotland’s Path to the 1707 Union with England
Scotland Before the 1707 Act of Union
Early Settlements and Kingdoms
- Mesolithic and Neolithic settlement existed, but there is no archaeological evidence of Celtic culture until approximately 150 BC.
- The highest population density was historically in the north-east.
Key Rulers and Events (11th Century)
- 1005-1034: Malcolm II incorporated the South-East into the kingdom.
- 1034: Duncan I ruled most of modern mainland Scotland, excluding the islands.
- 1040: Duncan I was killed by Macbeth, who then became king.
Key Events in US and UK History: 17th-19th Centuries
Manifest Destiny in 19th Century America
During the 19th century, the US thrived to expand itself. Americans were convinced that the country should stretch across North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific. They claimed that it was a clear intention of fate, something that was meant to happen. This feeling/belief was called “Manifest Destiny.” It took the Americans a bit more than half a century; nonetheless, after 1848, they acquired the whole territory they expected from the very beginning.
Read MoreEnglish Settlements in Colonial America
The Colonial Period
Why Did the English Settle in North America?
- To establish a source of commercial gain.
- To discover a Northwest Passage to the Orient.
- To limit Spanish expansion.
- To seek religious freedom.
- The lower and middle classes sought increased economic opportunity (finding free or inexpensive land).
How did the English establish settlements? Although the English were anxious to duplicate the Spanish and Portuguese successes, and they had a theoretical claim to North America (John Cabot’s voyage
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