English Syntax: Phrase Structure, Verbs & Function Words

Understanding Syntactic Structures

The key to analyzing standard sentence structures (syntax trees):

  • Complement: A phrase required by a Head to complete its meaning (Forms X’ with Head).
  • Adjunct: A phrase modifying an X’ category, resulting in another X’ category. Adjuncts can typically be removed without affecting the grammatical sense of the core phrase.
  • Specifier: A phrase combining with an X’ category to form a maximal projection (XP).

Saxon Genitive (‘s)

Structure: Specifier + ‘s + Complement

Verb

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Scotland’s Path to the 1707 Union with England

Scotland Before the 1707 Act of Union

Early Settlements and Kingdoms

  • Mesolithic and Neolithic settlement existed, but there is no archaeological evidence of Celtic culture until approximately 150 BC.
  • The highest population density was historically in the north-east.

Key Rulers and Events (11th Century)

  • 1005-1034: Malcolm II incorporated the South-East into the kingdom.
  • 1034: Duncan I ruled most of modern mainland Scotland, excluding the islands.
  • 1040: Duncan I was killed by Macbeth, who then became king.
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Key Events in US and UK History: 17th-19th Centuries

Manifest Destiny in 19th Century America

During the 19th century, the US thrived to expand itself. Americans were convinced that the country should stretch across North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific. They claimed that it was a clear intention of fate, something that was meant to happen. This feeling/belief was called “Manifest Destiny.” It took the Americans a bit more than half a century; nonetheless, after 1848, they acquired the whole territory they expected from the very beginning.

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English Settlements in Colonial America

The Colonial Period

Why Did the English Settle in North America?

  1. To establish a source of commercial gain.
  2. To discover a Northwest Passage to the Orient.
  3. To limit Spanish expansion.
  4. To seek religious freedom.
  5. The lower and middle classes sought increased economic opportunity (finding free or inexpensive land).

How did the English establish settlements? Although the English were anxious to duplicate the Spanish and Portuguese successes, and they had a theoretical claim to North America (John Cabot’s voyage

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Mastering the Writing Process: Steps, Paragraphs, and Peer Editing

The Six Steps of the Writing Process

Pre-writing

Before you begin writing, decide what you are going to write about. This plan is called pre-writing.

Step One: Choose a Topic

Before you write, your teacher gives you a specific assignment or some ideas.

Step Two: Gather Ideas

When you have a topic, think about what you will write about.

Step Three: Organize

Decide which of the ideas you want to use and where you want to use them.

Drafting

Step Four: Write

Write your paragraph or essay from start to finish.

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Writing Effective Biographies, Opinion Essays, News, and Descriptions

Biography

A biography tells the story of another person’s life. It gives important information about the person’s childhood and career.

Structure

  • Paragraph 1: Introduction and early life
  • Paragraph 2: Main events
  • Paragraph 3: Conclusion

Content

  • Use narrative tenses to talk about past events.
  • Use time expressions.
  • Use relative clauses.
  • Use adjectives to describe the person.

Useful Language

  • Positive adjectives: Ambitious, brilliant, brave, creative.
  • Negative adjectives: Aggressive, arrogant, egotistical, vain.
  • Useful
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