Descartes, Idealism, and Materialism: Foundations of Reality
René Descartes and Cartesian Dualism
Descartes, a prominent modern philosopher of the 17th century (Baroque era), argues that there are two distinct realities: a mental reality, known as res cogitans (the soul or thinking substance), and a material reality, known as res extensa (extended substance). His primary aim was to dismantle the false knowledge acquired through traditional schooling.
The Method of Doubt
Descartes created a new method in philosophy: methodical doubt, which involves doubting
Read MoreCore Concepts of Ethics: Moral Reasoning, Levels, and Corporate Law
Fundamentals of Ethics and Moral Reasoning
Ethics is a branch of philosophy. It studies what is right or wrong, good or bad behavior, and moral duty.
Ethical evaluation involves:
- Evaluating actions to see if they are good or bad.
- Defining what we should do (moral obligations).
- Judging only free and voluntary actions ethically. (If someone is forced, or it’s an accident, the action is neither moral nor immoral.)
Example: If a company makes a mistake because of a software bug, it is not unethical if they
Read MorePhilosophical Arguments on God, Evil, and Faith
Pascal’s Wager: The Philosophical Argument
Pascal’s Wager is a philosophical argument presented by the seventeenth-century French philosopher, theologian, mathematician, and physicist, Blaise Pascal. It posits that human beings wager with their lives that God either exists or does not. Since we must make choices, we are essentially forced to make a bet regarding God’s existence.
Objections to Pascal’s Wager
Several important objections have been raised against Pascal’s Wager and the Ontological Argument:
Read MoreAristotle: Hylomorphism, Causes, and Forms of Government
Aristotelian Metaphysics: Substance and Change
Any substance, according to the Hylomorphic Theory, is comprised of two components:
- Matter (Hyle): The substrate or potentiality from which something is made.
- Form (Morphe): The essence, pattern, or idea that configures the matter (analogous to Plato’s Idea).
For example: In a table, the matter (Hyle) is the wood, and the form (Morphe) is the idea the carpenter held.
Dynamism: Potency and Act
Potency (Dynamis): The tendency of matter to acquire a new form;
Read MoreThe Fundamentals of Morality, Ethics, and Freedom
Understanding Morality and Conduct
Morality is the practice of conduct in living. We inherit concepts of right and wrong from culture, family, and society. In morality, there is often no need for justification or reason; one simply tries to follow what is considered right.
Even within the same society, we all have different morals (e.g., Christian morals, Buddhism). Many people obey rules from those who claim moral authority without applying their own judgment or questioning them. This leads to living
Read More17th Century Thought, Science, and Baroque Art
The New Thinking: 17th Century Philosophy
In the seventeenth century, two major philosophical currents developed:
Empiricism: Francis Bacon and Experience
Empiricism originated in England. Its theoretical foundations appeared in the work of Francis Bacon, notably in Novum Organum. Bacon believed that scientists and philosophers should be skeptical and not take any knowledge for granted. Therefore, arguments that could not be proven by the scientific method—through observation and experimentation—should
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