Descartes’ Philosophy: Reason, Method, and Existence
Descartes’ Philosophical Journey
He received a scholastic education, educated by the Jesuits. He lived during the scientific revolution and against Galilean processes, including the Thirty Years’ War.
The Central Questions of Modernity
The problems of knowledge, its source, and veracity are central questions of modernity. Man took refuge in that which is universal and offers some security: reason. Descartes opens a new phase in the seventeenth century called rationalism. The rationalists reject realism
Read MoreUnderstanding Dualism: Mind-Body Theories and Philosophies
Understanding Dualism: Mind and Body
Dualist Theory: The human being cannot be reduced to either the mind or the body alone; it is composed of two components: “mind” and “brain” or “soul” and “body.”
Platonic Dualism
According to Platonic dualism, the human beings we see in this world are composed of body and soul, but this union is a simple accident. In reality, the soul is immaterial and immortal and existed before joining the body, so the true human being *is* its soul. Separated from the body,
Read MoreUnderstanding Obedience: Miller, Huemer, and Political Authority
Understanding Obedience: Miller and Huemer’s Perspectives
While Miller focuses on why the state is necessary for society to function well, Huemer is more interested in understanding why people actually obey political authority in the first place. He argues that our obedience often comes from psychological and social habits rather than clear, rational thinking. Through things like national symbols, voting rituals, and public ceremonies, people are raised to see the state as something natural and trustworthy.
Read MoreDavid Hume: Empiricism, Knowledge, and Causality
Hume’s Theory of Perceptions: Impressions and Ideas
David Hume categorizes perceptions (any mental content) into two types. Firstly, impressions are the direct feelings or sensations that occur because of a phenomenon; they come from our external senses. Secondly, we find ideas, which are internal representations within our mind, essentially thoughts. The primary difference between them lies in their degree of force and vivacity; impressions are stronger and more vivid than ideas.
According to Hume,
Read MoreHume’s Empiricist Philosophy: Knowledge and Morality
Hume’s Philosophy: Pragmatism and Morality
Hume’s philosophy represents a double inversion concerning traditional views: To verify theory, we need practice (accepting beliefs vital for human life), which foreshadowed twentieth-century pragmatism. By basing knowledge solely on impressions, he completely denies religion as a foundation for morality, anticipating one of the main themes of Enlightenment thinking.
Compare:
- Objectivism: Socrates, Plato
- Relativism: Sophists (e.g., Protagoras)
In principle,
Read MoreUnderstanding Social Facts: Definition and Examples
What are Social Facts?
The term “social facts” is often used to describe almost all phenomena within society, even those with limited collective interest. However, if all facts were social, sociology would lose its distinct focus and overlap with biology and psychology.
Social facts are defined as ways to act, to think, and to feel that exist outside of individual consciences. These behaviors and thoughts are not only external to the individual but also possess an imperative and coercive power, imposing
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