Fluid Dynamics Principles: Flow, Continuity, and Bernoulli’s Equation
Fluid Dynamics Principles
Dynamics and Fluids studies the laws applied to moving liquids.
Power Line
The trajectory q describes a particle moving.
Fluid Flow Tube
The set of infinite laminar flow streamlines and stationary: a particle in q is a fluid particle that follows the path of another particle = q. What happened before the point?
Turbulent Flow
q is a point in the fluid where particles move wildly, changing their velocity in both magnitude and direction.
Continuity Equation
Flow in a tube of variable
Read MoreKepler’s Laws and Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
Kepler’s Laws
Kepler’s laws are empirical laws, enunciated in the seventeenth century to describe the motion of planets around the Sun:
1st Law (Law of Orbits)
Planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one of the two foci. As the force is central, the angular momentum remains constant: L = R x M · v = constant.
2nd Law (Law of Areas)
A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time. This implies that the linear speed is greater when the planet is closer
Read MoreWaves: Properties, Characteristics, and Behaviors
Wave Mechanics
Introduction to Waves
Wave mechanics describes the collective behavior of individual particles within a medium. Waves transfer energy without transferring matter.
Types of Waves
Transverse Waves
In transverse waves, particles move perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
- Crest: The point of maximum positive displacement from equilibrium.
- Trough: The point of maximum negative displacement from equilibrium.
Longitudinal Waves
In longitudinal waves, particles move parallel to the
Read MoreMagnetism, Magnetic Fields, and Electromagnetism
Magnetism and Magnetic Fields
Centuries before Christ, it was known that some iron ores, like magnetite, attracted small pieces of iron. This property is called magnetism. Objects possessing this property can be natural magnets, such as magnetite or the Earth itself, or artificial magnets made of magnetized iron or other ferromagnetic metals like manganese and cobalt.
Magnetic Field
A magnetic field is the disturbance caused by a magnet in an area of space. It manifests through interactions with other
Read MoreOptical Instruments and Human Vision
Optical Tools
Lenses and mirrors are used to build optical instruments. Some are well-known and commonly used: cameras, binoculars, or a magnifying glass. Others have great scientific interest, such as microscopes or telescopes. In both, the visual tool for our purpose, optical systems, is a friend because this is our natural optical system. Therefore, it is important to understand how our vision works.
Human Eye
The aim of objects and images of eyes is to be estigmatic without creating defects. Back-
Read MoreAstronomy Facts and Figures
1. The Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum encompasses all electromagnetic radiation, including:
- Radio waves
- Microwaves
- Infrared
- Visible light
- Ultraviolet (UV)
- X-rays
- Gamma rays
2. Astronomical Unit
One astronomical unit (AU) is the average distance between Earth and the Sun, approximately 1.49 × 1011 meters.
3. Galaxies
A galaxy is a massive, gravitationally bound system of stars, gas clouds, planets, dust, dark matter, and possibly dark energy. Galaxies contain substructures like nebulae,
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