Classical Conditioning: Key Concepts and Techniques

Chapter 3: Learning Associations

Learning Object

Learn associations between different elements of an object stimulus.

Key Concepts and Techniques

Autoshaping

A variation of signal tracking.

Short Delay Conditioning

A classical conditioning technique where the conditioned stimulus (CS) begins shortly before the unconditioned stimulus (US).

Trace Conditioning

A classical conditioning technique where the US is presented after a brief period following the CS.

Inhibitory Conditioning

A classical conditioning technique

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Freud’s Psychosexual Stages & Ego Defense Mechanisms

Stages of Personality Development

Freud proposed that personality development progresses through several psychosexual stages. In each stage, libidinal energy focuses on a particular area. Successful progression leads to mature adult expression of this energy. However, excessive frustration or gratification can cause fixation, hindering adult development.

The Oral Stage

From birth to age two, libidinal energy centers on oral activities like feeding. Fixation can lead to high levels of oral activity

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Adolescent Development: A Guide to Physical, Cognitive, and Social Changes

Adolescent Development

Physical Development

Pre-Puberty

Hormonal Changes: Onset of secondary sexual characteristics (hair, breasts).

Puberty

Primary Sexual Characteristics: Development of fertility and body harmony.

Adolescence

Consolidation of previous characteristics.

Psychosexual Development

Pre-Puberty

Appearance of sexual impulses and dissociation of love and sex.

Adolescence

Integration of love and sex, and achievement of heterosexual identity.

Moral Development (Kohlberg)

Pre-Conventional (Pre-School)

Obedience

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Social Reaction and Deviant Labeling: A Critical Analysis

Social Reaction and the Labeling of Deviance

The Focus of Social Reaction or Labeling Theory

Rejecting genetic, psychological, or multifactorial explanations of crime and deviance, labeling theory emphasizes the social construction of deviance. This perspective highlights the relative nature of social norms and the impact of labels applied to those who violate them. What is deviant for one person may not be for another, and what is considered deviant in one context may not be in another.

Labeling

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Evolution of Language and Intelligence

Theories of Language Evolution

Early Stages of Language Development

According to Steven Pinker, the emergence of language may be linked to areas of the brain’s cortex. These areas, responsible for abstract thought, could have connected with areas controlling information flow. Vervet monkeys, for example, use distinct distress calls for different predators. This “quasi-referential” communication, as Pinker calls it, might have come under voluntary control as the cortex developed, allowing for the

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Different Types of Research

Summary

Historical Research

Seeks to reconstruct the past objectively, based on reliable documentary evidence. It applies not only to history but also to the natural sciences, law, medicine, or any other social science discipline.

  1. It depends on primary and secondary sources.
  2. Submits the data to internal and external criticism.

Descriptive Research

Includes description and is a form of study to find out who, what, where, when, how, and why about the subject of study or area of interest. It explains the

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