Redefining Freedom: The American Progressive Era (1900-1917)
The Progressive Era’s Challenge to the Gilded Age
The Progressive Era, spanning roughly from 1900 to 1917, emerged as a multifaceted reform movement challenging the perceived excesses of the Gilded Age, particularly rapid industrialization, the overwhelming power of corporations, and rampant class conflict. Unlike previous movements, Progressives advocated for government interventionism, believing that government entities must actively step in to restore order and protect genuine freedom. While not
Read MoreThe Establishment of the Second Spanish Republic, 1931
The End of the Monarchy (1930–1931)
Following the resignation of Primo de Rivera in 1930, King Alfonso XIII commissioned Dámaso Berenguer to form a new government.
The 1930 Pact of San Sebastián: This agreement aimed to create a provisional government, convene a Constituent Assembly, adopt a new constitution, and establish a new statute of autonomy for Catalonia. The ultimate goal was to overthrow the monarchy and declare a republic.
An attempted uprising by Republican army units and a planned
Read MoreIrish Language Decline & Ireland’s Globalization Success
The Irish Language: History, Decline, and Revival
1. Defining Language
Language is the primary means of communication with which people express their ideas, feelings, and information. It is not only speaking; it also creates a sense of identity (group cohesion) and serves as historical memory. It is a factor that differentiates people.
2. What is Irish (Gaeilge)?
Irish is a Celtic language, part of the group that includes Scots Gaelic, Welsh, Breton, Manx, and Cornish. It belongs to the larger Indo-
Read MoreThe Foundations of Modern Spain: Nationalism, Labor, and the Restoration System
Batzokija: Foundational Statutes of Basque Nationalism
Location and Classification
This document is a historical primary source authored by the Arana brothers, Sabino and Luis, though Article 2 of the statutes credits only Sabino. Addressed to the members of the *Euskeldun Batzokija* association, it establishes the group’s foundational ideas and purpose. Published in the nationalist newspaper *Bizkaitarra*, these statutes mark the ideological and organizational beginnings of Basque nationalism,
Read MoreDefining Modern Kinship, Adoption, and Reproductive Practices
Transnational Adoption and Kinship Terms
Transnational Adoption
Transnational and domestic adoption are methods for creating the most intimate forms of relatedness, yet this process is explicitly framed and structured by global relationships, particularly the political and economic relations between countries and regions. Occasionally called prohijamiento (making into one’s child). This child care arrangement involves a couple adopting a child of a different nationality across borders. It must meet
Read MoreIPE Theories and Global Economic Structures: Mercantilism to Modern Inequality
Mercantilism: Central Idea, History, and Neo-Policies
The central idea of mercantilism is that economic activity is a tool of state power, and wealth should be accumulated to strengthen the state in a competitive international system. For mercantilists, the economy is not an autonomous sphere but subordinated to politics: trade, production, and finance are instruments to enhance national security, sovereignty, and power. This contrasts with liberalism, which emphasizes cooperation, or Marxism, which
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