Carnot and Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycles
Carnot Refrigerator
The operating principle of refrigeration circuits is based on the reversed Carnot cycle, unlike internal combustion engines. External work extracts heat from a cold source and transfers it to a warm reservoir. A Carnot refrigeration system consists of: a condenser (hot reservoir, T1), an evaporator (heat sink, T2), a compressor (increases pressure and temperature), and an expander/turbine (decreases pressure and temperature). The four stages of the cycle are:
- The compressor, driven
Digitalization, Networks, and Telecommunications Technologies
1.6 Digitalization of the Signal
Digitization is the process that transforms analog signals, such as sound and video, into digital signals.
1.6.1 Analog to Digital Conversion
There are several methods, the most extended being pulse code modulation. This system digitizes the signal and transmits it by telephone line with the rest of the signals.
The original 4 kHz signal is converted into a bit stream at a speed of 64 kbit/s, consisting of three stages: sampling, quantization, and encoding.
- Sampling,
Electrical Codes, Standards, Conductors, and Insulators
Chapter 3: Codes and Standards
The design of electrical installations is done within a legal framework. An engineering project is a technically and economically appropriate response, which complies with the standards and codes.
In Mexico, NTIE (Technical Standards for Electrical Installations) issued by the Directorate General of Standards, constitute the legal framework mentioned above.
Other standards that are not mandatory can support areas not covered by the NTIE:
- a) The NEC (National Electrical
Heat Engines and Thermodynamic Cycles: A Technical Analysis
Heat Engines
A heat engine is capable of producing useful work from the thermal energy stored in a fluid. Thermodynamics studies the processes of transformation of work into heat and vice versa, by first setting the equivalence between work and heat and determining then how working conditions can be obtained from thermal energy.
- The process for converting heat to work or vice versa, there is a constant relationship between the work done and the heat consumed (mechanical equivalent of heat, and = 4.
Machine Dynamics, Machining, and Mechanical Systems
Machine Dynamics and Mechanical Systems
A machine is a physical system that uses energy to apply forces and control movement to perform an action. Dynamics is the part of physics that studies the motion of objects and their response to the forces acting on them. It relates the concepts of force, mass, and acceleration. The principles of dynamics are Newton’s laws:
- First Law of Newton: Principle of Inertia
- Second Law of Newton: Principle of Force
- Third Law of Newton: Principle of Action and Reaction
Work
Read MoreMechanical Tolerances, Adjustments, and Machine Elements
Tolerances
It is impossible to have an accurate measure because of the inevitable imprecision of the machines. For a measure to fulfill its purpose, it is sufficient to fall between two permissible limits.
- Tolerance: Difference between maximum and minimum extent.
- Nominal Size: The piece is assigned a nominal size, which serves as a reference. These are usually integers.
- Zero Line: Zero difference straight line and corresponds to the nominal size.
- DS: The difference between the maximum size and nominal