Syllabus Design and Materials in English for Specific Purposes

Posted on Feb 1, 2025 in Primary Education

The Syllabus in English for Specific Purposes

A syllabus is a document that outlines what will (or at least what should) be learned in a course. The contents of a syllabus are partly determined by previous procedures and decisions, including the results of needs analysis, the chosen theory or theories of language, the linguistic levels and skills to be focused on, and the level of specificity of the course.

Different Layers of a Syllabus

  • The Evaluation Syllabus
  • The Organizational Syllabus
  • The Materials Syllabus
  • The Teacher Syllabus
  • The Classroom Syllabus
  • The Learner Syllabus

The Evaluation Syllabus

This is the simplest form a syllabus can take: a mere statement of what is to be learned, of what a successful learner will know by the end of the course. Indirectly, it also includes the criteria for assessment: a learner that knows the established contents by the end will pass the course, and one who doesn’t will fail. For example, this could be the document handed down by ministries of education or other regulating bodies that is used as a basis for further steps in syllabus development. A theory of language is necessary at this stage. If the contents include only structures, then the syllabus adopts a structuralist view of language; if the contents include functions, then the syllabus has a more functional orientation, etc.

The Organizational Syllabus

This is a slightly more complex form of syllabus. It lists what should be learned, but it also states the order in which the contents are to be learned. Evaluation syllabi sometimes fulfill this role in that in many cases, we have the contents that should be learned in each year of a degree, for instance. However, the sequence in which contents should be learned is typically only very generally defined. Assumptions regarding the theory of language learning are made because, in order to come up with an adequate order, factors that depend on the view of how people learn languages need to be considered. For example, what is more easily learned comes first, what is more fundamental to learning comes first, elements that are necessary to learn other elements come before, what is more useful in the classroom comes before what is less useful, etc. Examples include the contents pages of textbooks.

The Materials Syllabus

In the previous two layers, there were lists of contents and an order, but nothing was said about how learning will be achieved. The first real interpretation of the contents comes when materials are designed. When writing materials, more assumptions regarding the nature of language, language learning, and language use are added to the syllabus. Decisions are made regarding the contexts of use that will be given more prominence, the skills that will be focused on, the number of exercises to be done regarding each aspect of language, etc. All of these decisions affect how well each aspect will be learned.

The Teacher Syllabus

The next interpretational layer of a syllabus comes through the teacher. The same syllabus and materials will be used differently in the classroom by different teachers. The teacher decides the amount of time devoted to each aspect of the syllabus, to each exercise, and to each material, thus influencing the contents that the learners receive. One teacher could spend just five minutes on an activity, while another one might spend twenty or more minutes on the same exercise.

The Classroom Syllabus

What is planned for a lesson very often differs from what actually happens in the classroom. A lesson is an event that is influenced by an interaction of many factors. For instance, the physical conditions of the location (noise, temperature, seating, etc.) and the conditions of the learner group (maybe they are tired, maybe they are focused on an exam they have in the next period, etc.). Student participation is also a factor: the time devoted to an activity will depend on how engaged students are in the activity. The syllabus is modified when it is implemented in a classroom, as it is also filtered through the conditions of the classroom.

The Learner Syllabus

All the layers of a syllabus mentioned so far are external: the learners can participate in their creation to some extent, but they are not decided by them. The last layer of a syllabus is internal: it is generated in the mind of the learner. The learner syllabus is the network of knowledge that is developed in the learner’s brain; the syllabus as acquired by the learner. It is a retrospective syllabus: it is not an ideal list of contents to be learned at the end of a course, but a record of what has been learned so far. There is no direct control over what goes on at this layer of a syllabus. The best that can be done is to influence the learner syllabus by considering the needs of learners at every stage of course development. In fact, there is only direct control of the first three layers of a syllabus: evaluation, organizational, and materials syllabi. From the fourth layer onwards, the syllabus is out of our control.

Organizing a Syllabus: Key Criteria

The main purpose of a syllabus is to break down the mass of knowledge to be learned into manageable units. This division of knowledge into smaller units cannot be done at random; it should follow some established criteria. Different ways of organizing a syllabus that have figured prominently in ESP include:

  • Situational Syllabus
  • Structural/Situational Syllabus
  • Functional Syllabus
  • Functional/Task-Based Syllabus
  • Skills Syllabus
  • Functional/Skills Syllabus
  • Topic Syllabus

The Role of the Syllabus in Course Design

The role of the syllabus varies in each of the three approaches to course design:

  1. Language-Centered Course Design
  2. Skills-Centered Course Design
  3. Learning-Centered Course Design

Language-Centered Course Design

The syllabus is the main determiner of the entire course: it is what the course is about, the inspiration for the production/selection of texts and exercises, and the basis on which proficiency is evaluated.

Skills-Centered Course Design

The syllabus plays a different role because the goal is not to present and practice language items, but to provide opportunities for learners to employ and evaluate the necessary skills and strategies in the target situation. The syllabus is not the main generator of activities and materials: the syllabus establishes criteria for the selection and ordering of texts, and the texts influence what is focused on in the exercises and assessment.

Learning-Centered Course Design

In the previous approaches, the learning activities (tasks, exercises, techniques) are almost the last factor to be considered in the process. Learning is more than just presenting language items or skills: it is not just the content that is important, but also the activities through which contents are learned. In learning-centered course design, the teaching methodology is not added at the end but instead, it is decided right from the start. To achieve this, the syllabus must be used in a more dynamic way in order to allow methodological considerations, like interest, enjoyment, or learner involvement, to influence the contents of the course.

Materials in ESP

Materials are anything that is used in the classroom to facilitate and advance the learning of the language. They provide the input for students; they are the means through which learners are exposed to language in the classroom. In most cases, they are paper-based, but they can also include other resources like videos or recordings, real objects, computer-mediated resources, and even performances. Materials are the means through which learning takes place and reflect our assumptions regarding how people learn languages. The types of materials selected/created will vary depending on their role in our lessons.

Four Main Roles for Materials in an ESP Course

  1. Language Scaffolding
  2. Models
  3. Reference
  4. Stimulus

Language Scaffolding

These are sources of language examples for discussion, analysis, exercises, etc. Scaffolding refers to the modification of contents to match the current level of the students. Rather than presenting very complex examples of a linguistic structure, simplified versions are dealt with first that serve to show the main features of a given structure, and then more complex examples can be presented. Materials used for language scaffolding are employed to give learners the opportunity to analyze, discuss, and manipulate contents that are adapted to their level. They typically include semi- or pseudo-authentic materials rather than purely authentic ones.

Models

These are sample texts that provide examples of rhetorical forms and structures of target text types. They are simplified versions of texts that serve to discuss the main features of a text type before dealing with more complex (i.e., authentic) examples. Materials used as models help to increase students’ awareness of how texts are organized and how functions are realized through linguistic means. They are typically semi- or pseudo-authentic materials (at least at first).

Reference

These include explanations and examples of relevant grammatical, rhetorical, or stylistic forms. Scaffolding and models focus on practice; reference materials focus on theoretical explanations. A range of materials including grammars, dictionaries, encyclopedias, and style guides all function to support the learner’s understanding of language through explanations, examples, and advice. Reference materials are particularly useful for self-study.

Stimulus

These are sources of ideas and content to stimulate discussions and/or writing for project work. Generally texts, but can also be video, graphic, or audio material, items of realia, Internet materials, etc. They are typically used to stimulate language production or as a source of information for larger projects or tasks. They serve as the starting point of other activities. They tend to be authentic to give learners the chance to manipulate real texts and real language, but can also be semi- or pseudo-authentic.

Adapting Existing Materials

When working with a textbook or other available materials, some adaptations will probably be needed:

  1. Adding: Supplementing or extending what a textbook offers with extra readings, tasks, or exercises.
  2. Deleting: Omitting repetitive, irrelevant, potentially unhelpful, or difficult items.
  3. Modifying: Rewriting examples, activities, or explanations to improve their relevance, impact, or clarity.
  4. Simplifying/Complexifying: Rewriting to reduce/increase the difficulty of tasks, explanations, or instructions.
  5. Reordering: Changing the sequence of units or activities to fit course goals.

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) Model for Materials Design

  1. Title and Starter
  2. Input: Stimulus material for further activities. It also serves to introduce new language items and a topic.
  3. Content Focus: Information, typically connected to the subject specialism of the students, used to create a communicative setting.
  4. Language Focus: Opportunities for learners to analyze and manipulate relevant language structures.
  5. Task: A communicative activity in which learners have to apply the knowledge of the content and language they have learned throughout the unit.
  6. Project: A further activity in which they can apply their knowledge. For instance, in this case, a project could be proposed asking the learners to describe any other kind of enclosed system (e.g., air conditioning system) using the contents and language learned in the unit.

Principles for the Creation of Activities, Exercises, and Tasks

  1. Language learning is a developmental process: Learners use their previous knowledge to make sense of new information. For a lesson to be successful, the teacher has to be able to activate the students’ previous knowledge and facilitate the task of connecting previous and new knowledge.
  2. Language learning is an active process: Students need to use the language actively in the classroom. But active does not only mean producing language, it can also be thinking about the language.
  3. Language learning is a decision-making process: It is important that learners are involved in the decisions made regarding the lessons.
  4. Language learning is not just a matter of linguistic knowledge, it is also a matter of communicative knowledge: Students may not know about the foreign language they are learning, but they know how to communicate. We can exploit their communicative abilities, for instance, by getting students to predict before they listen to a recording or read a text.
  5. Language learning is emotional: We should encourage the development of positive emotions towards the learning process by using pair or group work, giving students time to think to avoid pressure and anxiety, putting less emphasis on the product/outcome of activities and more on the process, valuing attitude as much as aptitude/ability, and making interest, fun, and variety priorities when creating activities.
  6. Language learning can be incidental: Activities do not have to be about language to promote language learning.

Techniques for the Creation of Activities, Exercises, and Tasks

  1. Gaps: Gaps can be used to create the need to think about language. Missing information triggers the students’ thinking processes.
  • Information Gaps: When one learner has some information that another learner does not have.
  • Media Gaps: When information that is available in one medium has to be transferred to another medium.
  • Reasoning Gaps: There are clues and some pieces of information available to the students, but to fill the gaps they have to infer and extrapolate the information from the material available.
  • Jigsaw and Matching Gaps: All the parts are there, but the students need to put the parts together to create a coherent unit.
  • Opinion Gaps: The students need to ‘fill the gaps’ by following their own opinion and beliefs. E.g., what’s important? What’s relevant?
Prediction: Using existing knowledge of a system or a topic to anticipate what is likely to happen in a new situation. Basically, the idea is to get our students to predict what they are going to encounter in a video or a text (or any other type of resource) by using their previous knowledge about a topic or a situation. Creativity: We should allow for students to use their creativity by means of activities that ask them to use language in a more dynamic and productive manner. Also, the answers to at least some of the exercises should be open-ended, that is, they should not have just one possible answer. Variety: It is important to avoid monotonous lessons if we want our students to be alert and pay attention.
  • Variety of medium: texts, recordings, videos, images, graphs, tables, diagrams, etc.
  • Variety of lesson organization: individual activities, pair activities, group activities, and whole class activities.
  • Variety of learner roles: presenter, evaluator, receiver of information, thinker, etc.
  • Variety of activities, exercises, and tasks (in terms of content or language focus, procedures, types, etc.).
  • Variety of skills: reading, listening, writing, and speaking (as well as micro-skills).
  • Variety of topics: different sides or aspects of the same topic, and different (though) related topics.
  • Variety of focus: accuracy, fluency, discourse/rhetorical patterns, structures, functions, etc.
Enjoyment and Involvement: It doesn’t matter how good your materials are in terms of contents, language, topic, variety, and so on; if a lesson is not enjoyable, then it is not a good lesson. Similarly, learners need to be engaged in the learning process to benefit from it. Involvement can be achieved by means of enjoyment, but also by getting the students to use their thinking capacities and to be active in the lesson. One way is to ask them guiding questions to get them to tell you the information rather than the other way around. They don’t have to be difficult questions; they can be questions with relatively straightforward and even obvious answers. The idea is to keep the students engaged.

Evaluation of Materials

There are four steps to evaluating materials:

  1. Defining the criteria we will use to judge our materials.
  2. Subjective analysis: What do we want our materials to do?
  3. Objective analysis: What do the materials actually do?
  4. Matching: How well do the materials match the criteria?

Three Types of Tests in ESP

  1. Placement Tests: Typically administered before the beginning of the course and used to ‘place’ the learners in the ESP course that is most adapted to their needs.
  2. Achievement Tests: Administered at any point during the course to see how well the learners are keeping up with the contents of the course.
  3. Performance Tests: Used to assess whether the learners can perform some language tasks, for example, reading technical manuals or writing lab reports.

In practical terms, designing tests involves thinking about four elements:

  1. Instructions for doing the test.
  2. Prompt.
  3. Expected response.
  4. Post-test evaluation.

Evaluation of the Course

What Should Be Evaluated?

The evaluation process of an ESP course should be concerned with assessing the extent to which the course has satisfied the needs of our students.

  1. Has the course fulfilled / Is the course fulfilling the learners’ needs? If ‘yes’, great.
  2. If ‘no’ or ‘yes but not completely’: What needs are not being / have not been fulfilled?
  3. Were the unfulfilled needs identified during needs analysis?
  4. If not, how can the needs analysis process be improved to avoid this problem in the future?

How Can ESP Courses Be Evaluated?

Most common methods:

  • Test results: if many students fail the course, then there is probably a problem; if many students make the same mistakes in a test, then something does not work; etc.
  • Questionnaires
  • Discussions
  • Interviews
  • Other informal means: e.g., unsolicited comments, casual chats, etc.

Who Should Be Involved in the Evaluation?

In theory, every stakeholder should participate in the evaluation process. In practice, those involved are typically the teachers, the students, and sometimes some authorities in the institution. It is important to get as many different points of view as possible to get a complete picture.

When (and How Often) Should Evaluation Take Place?

Some moments during a course in which evaluation can/should take place:

  1. In the first week of the course, to see the first impressions and reactions of the students and identify some problems derived from a faulty course design process.
  2. At least once during the course, for instance, midway through the course.
  3. Towards the end of the course (but when the course is still taking place, e.g., the last week).
  4. After the course has ended: this is potentially the most important moment when the stakeholders are in a position to judge the course as a whole. Students, for example, will now be able to say with certainty whether the course has prepared them for the actual target situations and target tasks they have to be involved in.