Text Structures, Linguistic Devices, and Language Functions

Posted on Mar 26, 2025 in English Studies

Text Structures

Deductive Structure

Presents the main idea at the beginning, followed by details, explanations, or examples that support or demonstrate it.

Inductive Structure

Starts with specific details, data, or examples and builds towards the general idea or conclusion, which is presented at the end.

Circular Structure

Combines elements of inductive and deductive structures. The main idea is formulated at the beginning, supported by specific cases or details, and then restated or summarized in the conclusion.

List Structure

Describes properties, characteristics, or elements related to an object, idea, or event using a list format.

Sequential / Chronological Structure

Arranges elements in a time-based order or according to a specific sequence of steps or stages.

Parallel Structure

Presents a concept and then expands on related information through distinct but similarly structured sections or points.

Comparison / Contrast Structure

Highlights the similarities (comparison) or differences (contrast) between two or more objects, beings, ideas, or phenomena.

Problem / Solution Structure

Consists of two main parts: the first part presents a problem, issue, or question, and the second part proposes or discusses solutions or answers.

Cause and Effect Structure

Explains the relationship between events or phenomena, identifying one as the cause and the other as the effect.

Linguistic Devices

Anaphora

The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses, sentences, or lines for emphasis or rhetorical effect.

Cataphora

The use of a pronoun or other linguistic unit that refers forward to another word or phrase (the referent) that appears later in the text (e.g., “When he arrived, John was happy.”).

Ellipsis

The omission from speech or writing of a word or words that are superfluous or able to be understood from the context (e.g., “She went to the party, but I didn’t [go to the party].”).

Progressive Focus

A technique where information is gradually revealed or the focus is narrowed progressively throughout the text.

Deixis

Words or phrases whose meaning is dependent on the context of the utterance, such as the speaker, listener, time, or place. Types include:

• Personal Deixis: Refers to participants in the discourse (e.g., I, you, we, us, mine, ours).
• Spatial Deixis: Refers to locations relative to the speaker (e.g., here, there, this, that, near, far).
• Temporal Deixis: Refers to time relative to the moment of speaking (e.g., now, then, yesterday, tomorrow, next week).

Impersonality

Techniques used to create objectivity or distance, often by avoiding direct reference to the speaker or a specific subject. Common methods include:

• Use of the passive voice (e.g., “It is believed that…”).
• Use of impersonal pronouns or constructions (e.g., “One might argue…”, “It seems that…”).
• Use of general statements or nominalizations.

Language Functions

Referential Function (Informative)

Concept:

Focuses on the context or reality being discussed. Aims to convey information objectively.

Intention:

To inform, report, explain, describe facts or events.

Linguistic Forms:

Declarative sentences, indicative mood, third-person perspective, objective vocabulary, precise data.

Common Text Types:

News reports, scientific articles, textbooks, manuals, encyclopedias.

Expressive Function (Emotive)

Concept:

Focuses on the sender (speaker/writer) and their emotions, attitudes, or opinions.

Intention:

To express feelings, subjectivity, personal viewpoints, or sensations.

Linguistic Forms:

First-person pronouns (I, me, my), interjections (Wow!, Ouch!), exclamatory sentences, subjective adjectives and adverbs, value judgments.

Common Text Types:

Personal letters, diaries, opinion columns, editorials, some interviews, lyric poetry.

Appellative Function (Conative)

Concept:

Focuses on the receiver (listener/reader) and aims to influence their behavior or attitude.

Intention:

To persuade, command, request, advise, provoke a response, get attention.

Linguistic Forms:

Imperative mood (commands), vocatives (addressing the receiver directly), interrogative sentences (questions), second-person pronouns (you, your).

Common Text Types:

Advertising, political speeches, instructions, requests, debates, sermons.

Phatic Function

Concept:

Focuses on the channel of communication itself. Used to establish, maintain, check, or terminate contact between the sender and receiver.

Intention:

To manage social interaction, ensure the communication channel is open and working.

Linguistic Forms:

Greetings (Hello, Hi), farewells (Goodbye, See you), conversational fillers (Well, You know), questions checking understanding (Are you listening?, Okay?), small talk about weather, etc.

Common Text Types:

Casual conversations, greetings, telephone calls (opening/closing).

Metalinguistic Function

Concept:

Focuses on the code (language) itself. Used to talk about language, clarify meanings, or explain grammar.

Intention:

To define terms, explain linguistic concepts, ensure mutual understanding of the code being used.

Linguistic Forms:

Definitions (e.g., “‘Deixis’ means…”), explanations of grammar or usage, questions about meaning (e.g., “What do you mean by ‘structure’?”), clarifications.

Common Text Types:

Dictionaries, grammar books, linguistics texts, language classes, clarifications within any text or conversation.

Poetic Function (Aesthetic)

Concept:

Focuses on the message itself, its form, and aesthetic qualities, rather than just its content.

Intention:

To create an artistic effect, draw attention to the way something is said, embellish the message.

Linguistic Forms:

Figurative language (metaphors, similes, personification), rhetorical devices, rhyme, rhythm, alliteration, assonance, puns, stylistic choices, vivid imagery.

Common Text Types:

Literature (poetry, novels, plays), advertising slogans, jokes, wordplay, some journalistic writing.