Textual Cohesion and Linguistic Functions
Cohesion
Reference: Refers to the mechanism that alludes to some elements mentioned in the text or relative to the communicative situation in which it occurs.
- Anaphora: Refers to a person and then talks about them within the text (e.g., 3rd person pronouns: he, she, it, they; relative pronouns: who, which, that; possessive and demonstrative determiners).
- Cataphora: First talks about a person and then says who it is within the text.
- Deixis: Linguistic mechanism that points to who, where, when.
- Personal deixis: Refers to elements outside the text (e.g., 1st and 2nd person and possessive personal pronouns: I, you, your, my, mine…).
- Spatial deixis: Demonstratives and adverbs of place: this, that, these, those, here, there…).
- Temporal deixis: Adverbs of time: before, now, then, always, never, while, yet).
Substitution: Gonzalo chose the blue jersey, Victor chose the same.
Ellipsis: Gonzalo chose the blue sweater and Victor the green.
Isotopy: The repetition of linguistic units related to each other.
- Grammatical isotopy: Repetition of elements of the same category (nouns, adjectives, verbs…).
- Semantic isotopy: Words that refer to the same field of meaning.
- Phonic isotopy: Phonic mechanisms, such as rhyme and alliteration.
Hyponyms: Pink, lilac, rose…
Hypernyms: Flowers.
Textual synonymy (reference): It uses expressions that in a given context refer to the same referent (e.g., Pau Walls, young student of 1st grade…).
Adequacy
Compliance with the standards related to the recipient, subject, and situation, which affect the constitution of a text.
- Recipient of a text: The text must be adapted to the recipient (e.g., to address children, you must use a language that is easy to understand).
- Theme: You should not digress and explain what is objectively necessary.
- Situation: Change of register.
Expository Texts
Expository texts are explanations or developments of a theme, in a clear, orderly, and coherent way.
- Purpose: To inform or transmit information, which is why a variety of topics are developed.
- Structure: Presentation of the theme, development of the exposition, conclusions.
Linguistic and Textual Features
- Morphosyntactic level:
- To express objectivity: Declarative and interrogative sentences with a didactic purpose, and sometimes the use of the third person plural, the first person plural, impersonal sentences, and reflexive passive.
- For the development of the explanation: Nouns, nominal phrases, relative clauses, appositions, adjectives, or equivalent structures, subordinate causal, consecutive, and final clauses.
- Lexical-semantic level:
- General features: Present indicative with a temporal meaning, denotative lexical frequency with abundant abstract and technical jargon.
Argumentation
Argumentation is a modality in which reasons are alleged to justify or prove a particular assertion.
- Purpose: To convince or persuade the receiver to act in a certain way or to believe what is said (appellate function).
- Structure: Subject-thesis-development or body-conclusion.
- Types of arguments: Cause-effect, analogies or comparisons, contrast, consequence, criterion of authority.
Linguistic and Textual Features
- Morphosyntactic level:
- General features for argumentative development: Sentential sentences (with coordinated and subordinated adversative clauses), interrogative sentences.
- To express objectivity: Third person.
- To express subjectivity: Interrogative or imperative sentences, first and second person, and vocatives.
- Lexical-semantic level:
- General features: Verbs alluding to discourse and reasoning, to cause and consequence, in addition to the present indicative and conditional, varied lexicon in which abstract nouns and technicalities stand out, specific descriptive or evaluative adjectives, and modal and expressive adverbs.
Connectors
- Explanatory:
- Repetition or reformulation: That is, in other words.
- Summary and conclusions: In short, in conclusion, to sum up.
- Rectification: On the contrary, rather, however.
- Addition: Also, moreover, furthermore, in addition, by the way.
- Exemplification: For example, in particular, especially, such as.
- Ordering: First, then, next, finally, firstly, secondly, on the one hand, on the other hand, lastly.
- Opposition or contrast: In another way, but, in contrast to this, however.
- Cause or consequence: It must be, that is why, therefore, consequently, thus, precisely because of that.
- Opinions or evaluation: In my opinion, I think, really, in fact, particularly, clearly, from the outset, of course, fortunately.
Functions of Language
Applications that we can give to language.
- Referential or representative function: (associated with the referent) The speaker transmits information about a subject without expressing feelings or trying to cause reactions in the recipient (e.g., I’m at the bus station. Today is Monday).
- Expressive or emotive function: (associated with the speaker) Reflects the speaker’s subjective attitude, emotions, opinions (e.g., I had a great time!).
- Appellative or conative function: (associated with the receiver) The speaker seeks to capture the receiver’s attention or influence their behavior (e.g., Bring me that glass).
- Metalinguistic function: (associated with the code) Language is used to talk about language itself (e.g., dictionaries, language classes… What does “nirvana” mean?).
- Poetic or aesthetic function: (associated with the message) Seeks to draw attention to the message itself, to the way of saying things (e.g., The oven is not ready for baking).
Textual Typology
- Descriptive texts: Serve to represent someone or something through language, explaining its different parts, qualities, etc. (e.g., travel guides).
- Narrative texts: To refer to actions, stories, or events, whether real or fictitious (e.g., stories and novels).
- Expository-explanatory texts: Present or clarify the true meaning of a word, text, or doctrine (e.g., reports, encyclopedias).
- Argumentative texts: Defend or refute, providing different reasons, an idea, project, or thought (e.g., advertising).
- Instructive-prescriptive texts: Make known the rules of operation of an object or society (e.g., first aid manuals, laws, or instructions for the operation of something).
- Dialogic or conversational texts: Oral exchange between several interlocutors (e.g., a dialogue can be a narrative and argumentative text).
Textual Classifications
- Scientific-technical texts:
- Functions: To disclose the advances produced in the field of science and technology; to explain the operating guidelines of objects or the functions of machinery.
- Language: Referential and appellative (inform, explain, and persuade).
- Character: Expository, argumentative elements may appear.
- Code: Marked inclusion of scientific references specific to the field (specialized terminology).
- Humanistic texts:
- Functions: Their objective is the study of the human being and their environment.
- Language functions: Referential, expressive, appellative, and aesthetic.
- Character: Expository and argumentative.
- Code: Rigor and clarity in the expositions. Variety in form and content with the possible inclusion of different arguments.
- Legal-administrative texts:
- Functions: Regulate relations between individuals and the various public administrations.
- Language functions: Appellative, referential.
- Character: Instructive, expository, and argumentative.
- Code: Use of denotative and objective language. Conservative trends and fixed formulas and structure.
- Literary texts:
- Language functions: Poetic, referential, expressive, appellative, metalinguistic.
- Character: Expository, argumentative, emotive.
- Code: Preset structures, use of personal linguistic code.
- Journalistic texts:
- Language functions: Referential, appellative, expressive, poetic.
- Character: Expository, argumentative, emotive.
- Code: Preset structures, use of personal linguistic code.
- Advertising texts:
- Language functions: Referential, expressive, appellative, poetic.
- Character: Expository, argumentative, emotive.
- Code: Mixture of codes, linguistic and visual code, use of personal linguistic code.