The 18th Century: Revolutions and Enlightenment
4 The Collapse of Absolutism
In the late 17th century, Holland and England experienced a series of political changes that began to limit the power of absolute monarchy. Enlightenment ideas led to a series of reformist experiences known as enlightened despotism.
4.1 The English Revolutions
In the Middle Ages in England, the power of the monarchy was limited by the actions of the two Houses of Parliament: the nobles and the clergy (House of Lords) and the bourgeoisie, representatives of the people (House of Commons).
In the 17th century, a new dynasty, the Stuarts, sought to rule without parliamentary control and proceeded to arrest or bring to justice those who opposed them. This caused a civil war between supporters of Parliament and the absolute monarchy. In 1649, King Charles I was executed and a republic was proclaimed.
Oliver Cromwell, the main promoter of political change, ended up turning the republic into a military dictatorship. He died in 1660, and the monarchy was reestablished.
Charles II, the new king of England, had to accept the control of Parliament, which in 1679 voted in favor of habeas corpus. This guaranteed individual freedoms and prevented the king from arbitrarily detaining anyone.
In 1689, a second revolution ultimately eliminated the absolute monarchy of the Stuarts, and Parliament offered the crown to William of Orange. He swore to uphold the Bill of Rights, limiting the power of the monarch and giving some of its decisions to Parliament.
England became a monarchy with limited power: the sovereign was limited by Parliament. The executive and legislative powers were separated, and a third, independent power, the judiciary, was established.
The citizens were guaranteed individual freedoms. The British parliamentary monarchy became a role model for the French philosophers of the Enlightenment.
4.2 Enlightened Despotism
Most European monarchs continued to exercise absolute power. Some, such as Frederick of Prussia, Maria Theresa of Austria, Catherine of Russia, and Charles III of Spain, attempted to reconcile the principle of authority of absolutism with the ideas of progress, rationalization, and modernity of the Enlightenment.
Enlightened despots and their ministers promoted reformist policies with the will to act for the good of the people, but without giving them decision-making power. The motto “Everything for the people, but without the people” defined enlightened despotism.
Their reformist policies were characterized by the rationalization of state administration, education reform, modernization of agriculture, infrastructure development, and the partial liberalization of production and trade.
5 The American Revolution
5.1 The United States’ Origins
The thirteen English colonies established on the eastern coast of North America staged the first colonial insurrection against a colonial power in the 18th century.
The inhabitants of these colonies, familiar with Britain’s political processes and encouraged by the ideals of equality, freedom, and tolerance, confronted the metropolis to defend their rights and interests.
They disagreed with the fees, taxes, and the commercial monopoly that Britain exercised over their territory.
On July 4, 1776, delegates from the thirteen colonies gathered in Philadelphia and wrote the Declaration of Independence of the United States of America, written by Thomas Jefferson. The Declaration expressed the principles behind their revolt: the right of all persons to liberty and the pursuit of happiness, and the duty of rulers to respect the inalienable rights of the people.
5.2 The Constitution of the United States
The war lasted until Great Britain recognized American independence in 1783 after its defeat at Yorktown. George Washington, the general who led the insurgent army, was proclaimed the first president of the United States of America.
In 1787, the new American state composed the first written constitution in history. The text ensured the separation and balance of powers, established a republican form of government with broad powers for the president, and a federal structure.
Above the states stood the federal government, responsible for foreign affairs, defense, and the currency of the new country.
The Constitution was supplemented by a Bill of Rights guaranteeing freedom of religion, press, speech, and assembly, as well as the right to be tried by a jury.
This application of political liberalism explains the impact of the American Revolution on the world.
6 The 18th Century in Spain: The Bourbons
The last king of the House of Austria, Charles II, died in 1700 without an heir. His designated successor was his great-nephew, the French prince Philip of Anjou. Philip V’s ascension to the throne meant the arrival of the Bourbon monarchy in Spain and the introduction of the French absolutist model.
6.1 The War of Succession
Part of the European powers opposed the Spanish monarch new model meant a strengthening of the Bourbons in Europe. Soon Great Britain, Holland and Portugal recited Austrian kingdom war on Spain and France
The candidate who opposed Philip 5 was the Archduke Charles of Austria thus starting the war of succession.