The 18th Century: Societal Shifts and Revolutions
Agriculture in the Manor
Agriculture was the most important activity. It was subsistence farming based on triennial rotation with fallow. Yields were low and oriented to consumption. There was no specialization of crops, and exchanges were few, held in local or regional markets. If the harvest was bad, there was little food and rising prices, since the land was held by the nobility and clergy. Peasants worked the land and had to pay heavy taxes. These periods were called small subsistence crises that generated hunger, misery, and popular revolts.
An Absolute Monarchy
The king had absolute power and ruled without any kind of law. The king was aided by some institutions that advised him (Council of State). For some matters, the king was to consult the Parliament, which had some authority to approve matters such as taxes.
Economic Expansion
The 18th century was relatively peaceful after long international conflicts. The signing of the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) established an international balance. Conflicts were solved with diplomacy and the signing of treaties and alliances between countries. The population increased between 1650 and 1800, and Europe rose from 100 to 200 million inhabitants. Population growth was due to the absence of epidemics, the introduction of new crops, and a better economic situation.
An Unequal Society
One of the most important characteristics is that society was divided into two distinct groups: the privileged and the underprivileged.
The Privileged
- The Nobility lived on rents and accumulated much wealth. They enjoyed honorary, economic, and fiscal awards.
- The Clergy lived on income and the tithe.
The Underprivileged
- The Third Estate was the sector of the underprivileged.
- The Bourgeoisie were the great artisans, merchants, and bankers, the most active group.
- The Popular Classes grouped manual workers in urban cities.
- Farmers constituted the largest group. Their living conditions were harsh as they worked the land compulsorily for the privileged and paid high taxes.
The Enlightenment
It is a movement of intellectual character, developed in 18th-century Europe, that put into question all the principles of the Old Regime. Precedents include John Locke and Isaac Newton. Locke criticized absolutism and first raised the division of powers. Newton established the scientific method based on observation and verification of facts. The Enlightenment defended absolute faith in reason as the only means of understanding the world.
Enlightened Despotism
European monarchs wielded absolute power. Some, like Frederick II of Prussia, Maria Theresa, Catherine of Russia, and Charles III, made possible the principle of authority of absolutism. Their reformist politics were characterized by the nationalization of state administration, education reform, the modernization of agriculture, the development of manufacturing, and the partial release of production and trade.
The United States of America
The 13 British colonies in the 18th century staged the first insurrection against a colonial metropolis and constituted the first example of government based on the principles of equality and tolerance. The American colonists did not agree with the fees and taxes and the commercial monopoly. In 1776, the Declaration of Independence of the United States of America was written by Thomas Jefferson.
The Causes of the French Revolution
Poor harvests, political marginalization, and the financial crisis were the problems that France had. It was to be solved with a tax reform that forced the aristocracy to pay taxes.
The Beginning of the French Revolution
The privileged refused to pay taxes, and Louis XVI convened the Estates-General. The representatives of the Third Estate demanded double representation, joint deliberation, and a vote per person. The monarch and part of the nobility only accepted the dual representation. The deputies of the Third Estate met on June 20 in a pavilion, erected the National Assembly in Paris, and drafted a constitution that reflected the will of the majority of the French.
The End of the Old Regime
The people of Paris backed the representatives of the Third Estate. On July 14, they stormed the Bastille fortress, took up arms, and prepared to defend the revolutionary process. On August 4, they abolished feudal privileges and promulgated the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.