The Age of Imperialism: Causes, Consequences, and World War I
The Age of Imperialism
6. The Age of Imperialism
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, industrialized nations experienced a period of peace and economic prosperity due to advancements from the Second Industrial Revolution.
1. Imperialism and its Causes
1.1. Europe’s Key Role
In the late 19th century, the Second Industrial Revolution transformed the economies of major European powers (Britain, France, Holland, Belgium, Germany, etc.). Technological innovations, new work organization methods, and banking growth led to a significant increase in production, trade, and improved transportation.
1.2. The Causes of Colonialism
Colonialism was primarily driven by economic motives, along with political and social factors. These included surplus production, overpopulation, and the pursuit of territories with economic or strategic importance by major powers.
2. Conquest, Organization, and Operation of Colonies
2.1. Exploration and Conquest
The search for new territories led to scientific voyages and geographical explorations. Explorers like Livingstone and Stanley mapped central Africa. European military and technological superiority facilitated relatively swift conquests, facing limited resistance.
2.2. Colonial Organization
Colonies: Primarily focused on economic exploitation by the mother country, with limited self-governance and direct European occupation.
Settler Colonies: Colonies that, due to climate, low indigenous populations, or resources, attracted permanent European settlement.
Protectorates: Territories where, after occupation, existing state organization, indigenous governments, and administrative systems were maintained.
3. Distribution of the World
By the late 19th century, major powers controlled most of Africa and Asia, Pacific Islands, Oceania, and large parts of America.
3.1. Distribution of Africa
From 1870, the colonization of Africa began. It was rapid and brutal, resulting in near-total domination of the continent, except for Liberia and Abyssinia. The Berlin Conference (1885) established rules and areas of occupation for each power.
3.2. Occupation of Asia
Asia was occupied by Western European powers and other expanding nations like Russia, the USA, and Japan.
3.3. The British Empire
Great Britain’s primary colony was India, known as the “Jewel in the Crown.” Queen Victoria was even proclaimed Empress of India in 1876.
3.4. The French Empire and Other Empires
The second French colonial empire was a major competitor to the British, particularly in Africa. Russia, the Netherlands, Portugal, Germany, and Spain also held significant territories.
3.5. The United States
The United States expanded towards the Pacific and the Caribbean. They defeated Spain in 1898, gaining control of the Philippines, Cuba, and Puerto Rico. They also acquired a strip of Panama to build the transoceanic canal. Japan occupied the Kurile Islands, Korea, and Formosa (Taiwan).
4. The Consequences of Colonization
4.1. Introduction of European Developments
Colonial powers introduced infrastructure improvements like ports, roads, railways, and communication lines. Hygiene and healthcare also improved, leading to decreased mortality and population growth. However, they also aimed to impose Christianity and Western values.
4.2. Economic Transformations
Colonizers prioritized their economic interests, often supported by local elites. This often led to the subjugation and worsening living conditions for the indigenous population.
4.3. Social and Cultural Changes
The imposition of colonial models altered social structures. The demands of work, urban life, and new values disrupted traditional life and hierarchies. The impact of Western culture led to the erosion of indigenous cultures.
5. The Causes of World War I
World War I (1914-1918) had its roots in the late 19th century, leading many historians to call it the “War Foretold.”
5.1. Colonialism and Nationalism
Rivalry between colonial powers: Conflicts between empires played out in places like Morocco (1905 and 1911).
Nationalist fervor: Fueled tensions between Germany and France after the Franco-Prussian War (1871), with both vying for European dominance.
Conflict in the Balkans: This region was a source of tension as various peoples under Ottoman rule fought for independence (Greece, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Montenegro).
5.2. Arms Race and Alliances
The tensions between major powers led to an arms race, with massive investments in weapons and military buildup. Complex military alliances were formed in preparation for potential conflict.
5.3. The Outbreak of War
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, triggered a rapid escalation of events, leading to declarations of war within a week.
6. The Great War
World War I was called the “Great War” due to its unprecedented scale and global involvement.
6.1. War of Movement
Germany attacked France through Belgium and Luxembourg, aiming for a swift victory before focusing on Russia. Initially successful, they were halted by French and British forces at the Battle of the Marne (September 6-13, 1914).
6.2. Trench Warfare
The war stagnated into trench warfare on the Western Front, stretching from Switzerland to the North Sea. Gaining even small amounts of territory came at a tremendous human cost.
6.3. Crisis of 1917 and the End of the War
The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia led to their withdrawal from the war with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. However, the United States entered the war after the sinking of the Lusitania by a German submarine.
6.4. War in the Rear
World War I involved unprecedented resource mobilization and civilian participation. New national armies conscripted men of military age.
7. The Organization of Peace
The Paris Peace Conference in January 1919 aimed to establish peace terms. While 32 countries attended, the four major victors (US, France, Britain, Italy) dominated the decision-making.
7.1. The Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh conditions on Germany, including accepting sole responsibility for the war and paying heavy reparations. Germany’s military was significantly reduced. This treaty fostered resentment and a desire for revenge in Germany.
7.2. A New Map of Europe
Following President Wilson’s principle of self-determination, several empires were dismantled. The Russian, Turkish, and Austro-Hungarian empires were broken up, leading to the creation of new states like Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Austria, and Yugoslavia.
7.3. The League of Nations
President Wilson proposed the League of Nations (SDN) to promote peace, international cooperation, and treaty compliance. Based in Geneva, it consisted of an Assembly (all member states) and a Council (victorious powers). However, the widespread destruction and economic hardship hindered its effectiveness.