The Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions: Economic Transformation
1. Agricultural Revolution:
- Agricultural Revolution: Increased production, food surplus, and innovations.
- New crop rotation system (Norfolk system) combining livestock and agriculture.
- New methods, crops, tools, and fertilizers introduced.
- In England, the enclosure acts led to the privatization of land, affecting peasants.
- Population Growth: More food, less disease, and improved health led to increased population.
- Lower mortality rates due to better food, medicine, and hygiene. Life expectancy rose to 50 years.
2. Industrial Development:
- Mechanization and the Factory System: The first machines appeared in the 18th century, initially powered by humans or animals.
- Spinning machines, looms, and the flying shuttle were early innovations.
- The Spinning Jenny, Mule, and Water Frame were used in factories for mass production.
- In 1769, James Watt invented the steam engine, which was applied to textiles, steel, and transportation.
- The Cotton Industry: Britain initially focused on wool but gradually embraced cotton due to its cleaner and softer qualities.
- In 1750, the import of cotton fabrics from India was prohibited in England.
- British manufacturers began producing cotton fabrics using raw materials from the United States and India.
- Coal and Iron: Steel became a key industrial sector.
- Coal was used as an energy source for smelting at high temperatures.
- Iron was used to make tools, weapons, building materials, and railways.
- Steelmaking techniques improved with the invention of the Bessemer furnace.
3. Economic Liberalism and Capitalism:
- Economic Liberalism: An economic system developed in the late 18th century by British thinkers like Adam Smith, who advocated for individual liberty, free trade, and free markets.
- Supply and demand balance the economy without state intervention.
- Malthus argued that population growth outpaces resource growth, requiring equilibrium.
- David Ricardo believed that abundant labor keeps wages low, ensuring economic stability.
- Capital, Labor, and Market:
- Capital: Production instruments and products owned by the capitalist bourgeoisie.
- Labor: The proletariat provides labor in exchange for wages.
- Market: The primary relationship is between employer and worker.
- Entrepreneurs seek to increase profits, while workers compete for higher wages.
- Competition drives down production costs and prices through new techniques.
- The 19th century saw periodic economic crises due to supply and demand imbalances.
- Protectionism and Free Trade: Britain favored free international trade (free trade).
- Other European countries and the U.S. were more protectionist, defending domestic markets with taxes on foreign products.
2.7 Industrialization on the Continent:
- In the late 18th century, industrialization spread from Britain to central Europe, then to Mediterranean Europe, and finally to Eastern Europe.
- The USA and Japan also developed industries outside of Europe.