The American & French Revolutions and the Rise of Liberalism & Nationalism
1. The Origins of the American Revolution
The American Revolution was the first conflict where ideas expressed by liberal thinkers were put into practice, leading to the creation of a new state: the United States. The American Revolution was a conflict between the settlers of New England and Great Britain, ending with the independence of the former. The settlers were not prepared to continue paying taxes without representation in the British Parliament. The conflict that the thirteen colonies faced with Great Britain had both economic and political aspects.
Key Events:
- In 1774, representatives of the Thirteen Colonies met in Philadelphia for the First Continental Congress.
- Thomas Jefferson drafted the Virginia Declaration of Independence, which proclaimed principles of national sovereignty, separation of powers, and voting rights. This document served as the basis for the United States Declaration of Independence, signed on July 4, 1776.
- The Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783, in which Britain recognized the independence of the thirteen American colonies.
The New Nation:
The new state had a federal structure, with a president controlling the executive branch and elected every four years. George Washington was the first president of the United States. Congress was formed by the House of Representatives and the Senate. The Supreme Court ensured that the actions of the government did not violate the Constitution. The Bill of Rights, drafted by Thomas Jefferson, had a great impact internationally.
2. The French Revolution
The Situation in France Before the Revolution
In 1789, France was a major power operating under the Ancien Régime, a system characterized by:
- A society divided into three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners.
- An economic crisis that had been ongoing since 1780, affecting prices and creating a climate of revolt.
- A financial deficit exacerbated by the costs of supporting the American Revolution and the fact that the privileged classes did not pay taxes.
- A political crisis, with King Louis XVI losing the support of the people.
The Storming of the Bastille: On July 14, 1789, with rising bread prices and rumors that the king was assembling troops on the outskirts of Paris, the citizens rebelled and stormed the Bastille, a former political prison and symbol of absolutism.
The Meeting of the Estates-General
King Louis XVI, attempting to resolve the financial crisis, convened the Estates-General in 1787. Each estate prepared a list of grievances (cahiers de doléances). The Third Estate’s grievances reflected deep dissatisfaction with the Ancien Régime. The bourgeoisie organized political clubs and newspapers to spread their ideas.
The National Constituent Assembly
Disputes arose over voting procedures in the Estates-General. The Third Estate, advocating for voting by head rather than by estate, declared itself the National Assembly. When the king ordered the closure of the meeting hall, the deputies gathered in a tennis court (the Tennis Court Oath) and vowed to remain until they had written a constitution. The National Assembly became the National Constituent Assembly.
The Work of the National Constituent Assembly
On August 4, 1789, the Assembly adopted the Decree Abolishing Feudal Rights. On August 26, it drafted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. In September 1791, the Constitution was promulgated, establishing a constitutional monarchy with national sovereignty, fundamental rights, separation of powers, census suffrage, and administrative decentralization.
Opposition to the Reforms and the End of the Monarchy
The Constitution of 1791 led to dissatisfaction among the sans-culottes, who desired more radical changes. The king and privileged classes resisted the loss of their power. War with Austria and Prussia began in April 1792. The royal family’s attempted escape in June 1791 further eroded public trust. On August 10, 1792, the Tuileries Palace was stormed, and the monarchy was effectively overthrown.
3. The National Convention and the Reign of Terror
Following the September Massacres, elections were held for the National Convention, dominated by the Girondins (moderate Republicans) and the Jacobins (radical Republicans). The war effort was intensified, a Revolutionary Tribunal was established, and the Committee of Public Safety was formed.
4. The Directory and the Rise of Napoleon
The Constitution of the Year III (1795) established a new, more moderate regime with a Directory of five members. Royalist uprisings, such as the Vendémiaire revolt in 1795, were suppressed by Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon’s victories in the Italian campaign (1796) enhanced his reputation. The weakness of the Directory and ongoing wars led to Napoleon’s coup of 18 Brumaire (1799).
5. Napoleon and Europe
Napoleon’s ambition led to wars with various European coalitions. He established the Continental Blockade against Great Britain and occupied Spain in 1808. The invasion of Russia in 1812 proved disastrous. Napoleon was defeated by a coalition of European powers at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813 and abdicated in 1814.
6. The Restoration and the Congress of Vienna
Following Napoleon’s defeat, the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) sought to restore stability and prevent future revolutions. The European map was redrawn, France’s borders were restored to their pre-revolutionary state, and buffer states were strengthened. The Congress also established the Concert of Europe, a system of international cooperation to maintain peace and prevent revolutions.
7. Liberalism and Nationalism
The years 1820, 1830, and 1848 saw revolutionary movements across Europe, fueled by liberalism and nationalism. Liberalism challenged absolutism and sought to restore the rights and freedoms of the French Revolution. Nationalism, intensified by Napoleon’s conquests, promoted the idea of national self-determination.
8. Latin American Independence
First Phase
The Napoleonic Wars created a power vacuum in Spain, leading to the formation of juntas (governing councils) in Latin America. These juntas began to form armies and establish diplomatic relations with the United States and Britain.
Second Phase
The restoration of the Spanish monarchy under Ferdinand VII led to renewed conflict. Independence movements gained momentum in Argentina under General José de San Martín, who also liberated Chile. Simón Bolívar led independence movements in northern South America. Political instability in Spain further aided the independence movements. Mexico achieved independence under Agustín de Iturbide in 1821.