The Art of Rhetoric: Ancient Masters and Techniques
Speaking: Character: Literary genre written in prose, conceived as the art of speaking well, with correction, persuasively, and convincingly, linked to freedom of expression. Theoretical rhetoric is the art of discourse. The Greeks and Romans achieved high levels in this art, combining functionality and aesthetics. In Greece, schools of rhetoric opened, the Asian (exuberant style, long periods) and Attic (austere and sober). The main scenarios which allowed the development of this genre were the high courts of justice and debates in popular assemblies.
Discourse Techniques: Cicero believed the perfect combination consists of three factors: natural disposition, culture, and deep and extensive knowledge of the art of oratory. The technique covers five fundamental points:
- Inventio (finding appropriate arguments)
- Dispositio (proper distribution of arguments)
- Elocutio (art of using words and stylistic figures most conveniently)
- Memory (ability to remember everything in the right place)
- Actio (physical aspect in the speech)
Discourse Parts: Aristotle cites four parts of speech:
- Exordium (introduction)
- Narratio (preparation of the argument)
- Argumentatio (exposure of arguments: defense or refutation)
- Epilogue (two levels: of things (brief summary of discourse), and of feeling (pathetic conclusion))
Discourse Types:
- Deliberative speech (at a meeting to dissuade)
- Demonstration (praise or criticize a person)
- Judicial and forensic discourse (court)
Cato the Elder (234-149 BC)
Born in Tusculum, from a noble and wealthy family, Cato was a censor and developed his work with sobriety and severity. He dedicated his life and work to telling history and wrote over 150 discourses that displayed vitality and strength. When sentenced to death, he prepared his defense with a discourse. For him, the important thing was the mastery of technique and ornamentation, but with Greek taste.
Cicero (106 BC – 43 BC)
Born in Arpino in 106 BC, Cicero’s family belonged to the class of rural Roman knights. He received his higher education and studied philosophy and literature with real eagerness. He became interested in the problems of eloquence. His natural inclination led to an intense public life. He had astonishing agility to conduct a trial and was a man admired in his time for his extraordinary work in public life. Throughout his life, he strived to be admitted to the class of leaders and maintain a good standard of living. His first public appearance took place in the year 81 BC against Hortensius. This made many begin to notice him politically, and he decided to travel to Greece, where he continued to study rhetoric to improve his technique. He returned to Rome in 77 BC, married Terentia, and established a good clientele as a lawyer. In 70 BC, he acted against Verres, who had been accused of graft, and won his case, starting to be considered the best blunt speaker.
In 66 BC, the conspiracy of Catiline took place, which Cicero managed to suffocate. Later, this was the culmination of his career. He attracted the enmity of Pompey and Caesar and was exiled for having sent the accomplices of Catiline to be executed without a trial. He was forced to remain away, but when the civil war broke out, he returned to the side of Pompey. After Pompey’s death in Pharsalia, Cicero returned to Rome and was received with difficulty by Caesar. He spent the civil war devoted to writing Brutus and Orator. He separated from Terentia and married Publilia, but soon divorced her after a bad season following the death of his daughter Tullia. He found little relief in philosophy and wrote Consolatio, of which nothing remains. When Caesar was murdered, Cicero devoted himself to attacking Antony, who wanted to seize power. Cicero was assassinated by Antony’s soldiers, crying, “Freedom! Freedom!” Later, his head and his right hand were displayed in the forum.