The Basque Country and Spain: 1875-1939
1. The Restoration and the Crisis of the Liberal State (1875-1923)
1.1 The Restoration (1875-1898)
Following the overthrow of the monarchy, the Restoration was established, based on the 1876 Constitution. This system facilitated the alternation of power between two main political parties. The Constitution, however, allowed for amendments and determined suffrage based on the ruling party. Power shifts were initially peaceful, orchestrated by the King and often involving electoral manipulation.
Several problems plagued the Restoration: the exclusion of opposition parties (Carlists, Democrats, and Republicans), regionalist movements demanding autonomy (particularly in Catalonia, the Basque Country, and Galicia), and the rise of social movements like socialism (PSOE and UGT) and anarchism (FTRE). The Disaster of 1898, marked by the loss of Spain’s last colonies (Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines), further destabilized the system.
1.2 Crisis of the Liberal State: Reign of Alfonso XIII (1898-1923)
The system of party rotation continued under new leaders like Antonio Maura (Conservative) and José Canales (Liberal). Attempts at social improvement were unsuccessful, and the Moroccan War led to unrest and strikes in Barcelona. The conservative government’s repressive measures broke the power-sharing pact, leading to Maura’s resignation.
The Restoration system ultimately collapsed. The 1917 crisis encompassed military discontent, political demands for decentralization and autonomy (especially in Catalonia), and social unrest due to rising prices and strikes. The period between 1919 and 1923 saw further deterioration, with short-lived governments, escalating social conflicts, economic hardship following World War I, and the Annual Disaster in Morocco. These factors culminated in General Primo de Rivera’s coup, ending the Restoration and establishing a dictatorship.
1.3 Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship (1923-1930)
The dictatorship had two phases. The first involved a military directory, suspending the 1876 Constitution, dissolving Parliament, banning political parties, and suppressing nationalist and worker movements. The second phase saw the establishment of a civilian directory focused on promoting agriculture and industry, improving infrastructure, and addressing the Moroccan conflict. However, the economic crisis, rising unemployment, and opposition from intellectuals led to Primo de Rivera’s resignation. Attempts to restore the parliamentary system resulted in Republican electoral victory and Alfonso XIII’s exile.
2. The Second Republic and the Civil War (1931-1939)
2.1 The Second Republic (1931-1936)
Following Alfonso XIII’s exile, the Second Republic was proclaimed. A provisional government called for elections, resulting in a leftist majority in the Constituent Parliament. The 1931 Constitution reflected their ideology, and Niceto Alcalá Zamora was elected president. The Republic had three distinct stages: the Reformist Biennium, the Conservative Biennium, and the Popular Front.
The Reformist Biennium, led by Azaña, focused on decentralization (including the approval of a Statute of Autonomy for Catalonia), improving working conditions (40-hour workweek, rent increases, insurance), and land redistribution. However, slow progress and social unrest led to Azaña’s resignation and a right-wing electoral victory.
The Conservative Biennium (1933-1936) saw the rise of the Radical Party under Lerroux, forming a right-wing coalition. This period was marked by increased mobilization and strikes, culminating in the October 1934 Revolution. Subsequent elections brought the Popular Front to power, facing political radicalization and increasing violence, ultimately leading to a military coup led by General Mola.
2.2 The Civil War (1936-1939)
The military uprising began in July 1936, succeeding in rural areas but failing in industrialized zones. The rebels gained support from landowners, the upper bourgeoisie, and monarchists, while the Republican government was backed by landless peasants, the lower middle class, and leftist parties. International involvement included support for the rebels from Germany and Italy, and for the Republic from the Soviet Union and the International Brigades.
The war involved a failed attempt to take Madrid, followed by a shift in focus to the Basque Country and other industrial areas. The Battle of the Ebro resulted in heavy casualties on both sides. The fall of Catalonia led to the final Republican resistance in Madrid, ultimately ending with Franco’s victory.
The war had significant political consequences. The Republican side experienced a social revolution, including land collectivization and anti-clericalism. The Basque Statute of Autonomy was approved but short-lived. Franco consolidated power, reversing Republican reforms. The war resulted in immense human and material losses, the establishment of an authoritarian regime, and the suppression of cultural expression.
3. Population, Economy, and Society (1875-1939)
Spain experienced accelerated population growth, a demographic transition, and increased migration (both internal and external). The economy saw continued agricultural activity, the Second Industrial Revolution (focused on Catalonia and the Basque Country), and the development of infrastructure and finance. Spanish society was stratified, with a wealthy upper class, a growing middle class, and a large, impoverished lower class.
4. The Basque Country (1875-1939)
The Basque Country experienced significant industrial development, particularly in Biscay (iron and steel) and Gipuzkoa (metallurgy). The abolition of the fueros led to tax and military service obligations, and the establishment of Provincial Councils. World War I had a profound impact, leading to social and political movements. During the Second Republic, the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) advocated for autonomy, culminating in the approval of a Statute of Autonomy in 1936. The Civil War saw the Basque Country divided, with Biscay and Gipuzkoa remaining loyal to the Republic. Despite organized defense, Franco’s forces, aided by German and Italian support, ultimately prevailed.