The Beginning of Western Philosophy: From Myth to Logos
The Beginning of Western Philosophy
The beginning of Western philosophy takes the 11th century BC and the writings of Ionia as its starting point. In cities like Miletus, intellectual activity began to flourish, with individuals seeking answers beyond religious explanations. These early philosophers turned to observation and reason, marking a shift from mythical thinking.
Myth vs. Logos
Myth
Myths are poetic narratives that attempt to explain the origin of the world through the actions of gods and supernatural forces. They are expressed in a language specific to the divine and transmitted through oral tradition. Events in myths are often unpredictable and attributed to the whims of the gods.
Logos
Philosophy, on the other hand, is a body of knowledge and experience based on reason, aiming to understand the world around us. It employs a rational language called logos and is constantly evolving with new ideas. Natural forces are explained through inherent principles, and the goal is to discover the laws of nature through reason.
The Presocratics and the Origin of Things
The first philosophers focused on two main issues: metaphysics (the nature of reality) and epistemology (the theory of knowledge). They sought to understand the underlying order of the cosmos (nature) and the fundamental principles that govern all things. The central question was the origin of things, explored through two key ideas:
- The Permanent vs. the Changing: Philosophers sought to identify the permanent essence of things (what they truly are) as opposed to their changing appearances (how they seem). This essence represents the underlying unity beneath the diversity of appearances.
- Reduction to Fundamental Elements: The universe was believed to be reducible to one or a few fundamental elements. This principle was considered the key to understanding reality, as it revealed the common and permanent essence of things. The senses, which only perceive appearances and changing states, were deemed unreliable.
These early philosophers, known as the Presocratics, often attributed life or a soul to nature (hylozoism). They can be categorized as monists (believing in a single fundamental principle) or pluralists (believing in multiple principles). Examples include Thales (water as the principle), Anaximander (the infinite or apeiron), Anaximenes (air), and Parmenides (the unchanging nature of reality).
Pluralists and the Reconciliation of Change and Permanence
In the 5th century BC, pluralist philosophers like Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and Democritus attempted to reconcile the concept of change with Parmenides’ notion of an unchanging reality. They proposed that multiple fundamental principles interact to create the diversity of the world.
- Empedocles: Proposed four elements (earth, air, fire, water) governed by two opposing forces, Love (uniting) and Strife (separating).
- Anaxagoras: Suggested an infinite number of primitive particles (seeds) mixed together by a higher power called Nous (mind).
- Democritus: Developed the theory of atomism, proposing that the universe consists of atoms (indivisible particles) moving randomly in a void. The different combinations of atoms give rise to the variety of things in the world.
Mechanism
Mechanism is the theory that the movement of nature is due to its inherent properties, not external forces. It opposes teleology, the idea that nature has a purpose or goal.
Pythagoras and the Mathematical Understanding of Nature
Pythagoras believed that the key to understanding nature lies in mathematics. He observed the correspondence between the length of a musical instrument’s string and the notes it produced, leading him to believe that everything in the universe is governed by numbers, proportion, and harmony. Numbers were not mere abstractions but had a material and geometric reality.
The Anthropological Turn in the 5th Century BC
In the 5th century BC, Greek philosophy shifted its focus towards humanity and society. The Sophists and Socrates emerged as prominent figures during this period.
The Sophists
The Sophists were teachers of rhetoric and practical skills, focusing on human affairs rather than metaphysical speculations. They believed that knowledge is subjective, particular, and based on sensory experience. Protagoras, a prominent Sophist, famously stated that “man is the measure of all things.” This relativistic view challenged the existence of universal truth and objective moral standards. The Sophists emphasized the importance of persuasion and rhetoric in social and political life.
Socrates: A Unique Sophist
Socrates shared some concerns with the Sophists but differed significantly in his methods and doctrines.
Socrates vs. the Sophists
- Payment for Teaching: Sophists charged for their services, while Socrates did not.
- The Nature of Truth: Socrates believed in the existence of objective and universal truth, attainable through reason and dialogue.
- The Role of the Individual and Society: Socrates emphasized the importance of individual virtue and its connection to the well-being of society, advocating for the rule of law.
The Socratic Method
Socrates’ primary goal was to attain knowledge and virtue. He believed that knowledge is inherent within individuals and can be brought forth through a process of questioning and self-examination. This process, known as the Socratic method or maieutics, involves two stages:
- Elenchus (Examination): Recognizing one’s own ignorance is the first step towards knowledge. Through questioning, Socrates would expose the contradictions and inconsistencies in his interlocutors’ beliefs, leading them to acknowledge their lack of understanding.
- Maieutics (Midwifery): Once individuals recognize their ignorance, they are ready to engage in a process of guided discovery. Through further questioning and dialogue, Socrates would help them arrive at a clear and universally valid definition of the concept under discussion.
The Socratic method emphasized the importance of dialogue and critical thinking in the pursuit of knowledge and virtue. It demonstrated that universally valid truths can be reached through reasoned discussion and agreement.